Global Patterns of Gender Equality: A Multivariate Analysis of SDG Indicators
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.18041/1900-3803/entramado.2.13532Palavras-chave:
Gender equality, Sustainable development, Women’s studies, Multivariate analysisResumo
Focusing on the global patterns of gender equality, this study conducts a multivariate analysis of six selected indicators included in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), utilizing data from 160 countries reported in the Sustainable Development Report 2023. Employing the DUAL-STATIS multivariate analysis technique, the study examines the associations between these indicators and countries, identifying the differences or similarities observed. The findings reveal a structural division: while high-income nations advance in political and labor parity, lower-income regions face persistent deficits in maternal health and adolescent fertility. Conclusively, this structural behavior demonstrates that progress in gender targets is highly interdependent and uneven across regions, making it impossible to capture through isolated metrics. Methodologically, it is recommended to apply multivariate techniques to evaluate and understand global indicators. Practically, public gender policies and monitoring frameworks must transition from aggregate targets to integrated, regionalized strategies that simultaneously address reproductive health limitations and institutional representation barriers to guarantee gender equality and women's empowerment.
Downloads
Referências
1. ABDI, Hervé; WILLIAMS, Lynne; VALENTIN, Dominique; BENNANI-DOSSE, Mohammed. STATIS and DISTATIS: Optimum multitable principal component analysis and three-way metric multidimensional scaling. WIREs Computational Statistics, 2012, vol. 4, p. 124–167. https://doi.org/10.1002/wics.198
2. ABBOTT, Pamela; MALUNDA, Doreen. The promise and the reality: Women’s rights in Rwanda. African Journal of International and Comparative Law, 2016, vol. 24, no. 4, p. 561–578. https://doi.org/10.3366/ajicl.2016.0173
3. ALEX, J. K.; MATHEW, Deepa. Re-addressing the notion of patriarchy in social and economic framework in the light of women empowerment. En: HAMDAN, A.; ALDHAEN, E. S. (eds.). Artificial Intelligence and Transforming Digital Marketing. Cham: Springer, 2024. Studies in Systems, Decision and Control, vol. 487. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-35828-9_29
4. ALTUZARRA, Amaia; GÁLVEZ-GÁLVEZ, Carmen; GONZÁLEZ-FLORES, Alfonso. Is gender inequality a barrier to economic growth? A panel data analysis of developing countries. Sustainability, 2021, vol. 13, p. 367. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13010367
5. AMENT, Jessica M.; FREEMAN, Richard; CARBONE, Chris; VASSALL, Anna; WATTS, Charlotte. An empirical analysis of synergies and tradeoffs between Sustainable Development Goals. Sustainability, 2020, vol. 12, p. 8424. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12208424
6. ANDERSON, Christopher C.; DENICH, Manfred; WARCHOLD, Anne; KROPP, Jürgen P.; PRADHAN, Prajal. A systems model of SDG target influence on the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Sustainability Science, 2021, vol. 17, p. 1459–1472. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-021-01040-8
7. BOCCI, Laura; D’URSO, Pierpaolo; VICARI, Daniele; VITALE, Vincenzo. A three-way approach for defining competitiveness indexes of the European regions NUTS-2. Social Indicators Research, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-021-02839-9
8. BOUGEARD, Stéphane; DRAY, Stéphane. Supervised multiblock analysis in R with the ade4 package. Journal of Statistical Software, 2018, vol. 86, no. 1, p. 1–17. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v086.i01
9. CHARRAD, Malika; GHAZZALI, Nadia; BOITEAU, Veronique; NIKNAFS, Azam. NbClust: An R package for determining the relevant number of clusters in a data set. Journal of Statistical Software, 2014, vol. 61, no. 6, p. 1–36. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v061.i06
10. CHESSEL, Daniel; DUFOUR, Anne B.; THIOULOUSE, Jean. The ade4 package – I: One-table methods. R News, 2004, vol. 4, no. 1, p. 5–10. https://journal.r-project.org/articles/RN-2004-002/RN-2004-002.pdf
11. CHIRAWU, Priscilla. Perspectives on gender in science, technology and innovation: A review of Sub-Saharan Africa’s science granting councils and achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. Frontiers in Research Metrics and Analytics, 2022, vol. 7, p. 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3389/frma.2022.814600
12. DAWES, Harry P. SDG interlinkage networks: Analysis, robustness, sensitivities, and hierarchies. World Development, 2022, vol. 149, 105693. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105693
13. EDEN, Lorraine; WAGSTAFF, Mark F. Evidence-based policymaking and the wicked problem of SDG 5 gender equality. Journal of International Business Policy, 2021, vol. 4, p. 28–57. https://doi.org/10.1057/s42214-020-00054-w
14. EKWEBELEM, Obinna C.; OFIELU, Emmanuel S.; NNOROM-DIKE, Olivia V.; IWEHA, Chukwuma; EKWEBELEM, Nkiru C.; OBI, Bright C.; UGBEDE-OJO, Stella E. Threats of COVID-19 to achieving United Nations Sustainable Development Goals in Africa. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 2020, vol. 104, no. 2, p. 457–460. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.20-1489
15. DRAY, Stéphane; DUFOUR, Anne B. The ade4 package: Implementing the duality diagram for ecologists. Journal of Statistical Software, 2007, vol. 22, no. 4, p. 1–20. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v022.i04
16. FEKI-SAHNOUN, Wafa; HAMZA, Amel; BÉJAOUI, Bassem; MAHFOUDI, Mohamed; REBAI, Aymen; HASSEN, Mohamed B. Multi-table approach to assess the biogeography of phytoplankton: Ecological and management implications. Hydrobiologia, 2018, vol. 815, p. 229–251. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-018-3566-3
17. FELLEGI, Zsófia; BÁRCENA-MARTÍN, Elena; MORO-EGIDO, Ana I. Women’s political power: Global progress, persistent challenges. Women’s Studies International Forum, 2023, vol. 101, 102818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2023.102818
18. GALLEGO-ÁLVAREZ, Isabel; RODRÍGUEZ-ROSA, Marta; VICENTE-GALINDO, Pablo. Are Worldwide Governance Indicators stable or do they change over time? A comparative study using multivariate analysis. Mathematics, 2021, vol. 9, p. 3257. https://doi.org/10.3390/math9243257
19. GONZÁLEZ-SÁNCHEZ, Gema; OLMO-SÁNCHEZ, María Isabel; MAESO-GONZÁLEZ, Elena. Challenges and strategies for post-COVID-19 gender equity and sustainable mobility. Sustainability, 2021, vol. 13, p. 2510. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13052510
20. HEIDARI, Shirin, PALMER-ROSS, Anna y GOODMAN, Thomas. Gender-related data missingness, imbalance and bias in global health surveys. BMJ Global Health, 2021, vol. 6, no. 11, e007405. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-018-2667-0
21. HOTELLING, Harold. Analysis of a complex of statistical variables into principal components. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1933, vol. 24, no. 6, p. 417–441.
22. HOTELLING, Harold. Simplified calculation of principal components. Psychometrika, 1936, vol. 1, no. 1, p. 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02287921
23. JAFFRENOU, Pierre. Sur l’analyse des familles finies de variables vectorielles: Bases algébriques et applications à la description statistique. Lyon: Université de Lyon, 1978.
24. JULIEN-LAFERRIÈRE, Alexis; SIBERCHICOT, Aurélie; DRAY, Stéphane. The adegraphics package. 2021. https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/adegraphics/vignettes/adegraphics.html
25. KASTRINOS, Nikos; WEBER, Matthias K. Sustainable development goals in the research and innovation policy of the European Union. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 2020, vol. 157, 120056. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2020.120056
26. KABEER, Naila. Gender equality, inclusive growth, and labor markets. En: Women’s Economic Empowerment. Londres: Routledge, 2021. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003141938
27. KROONENBERG, Pieter M. The analysis of multiple tables in factorial ecology: Three-mode principal component analysis. Acta Oecologica, 1989, vol. 10, p. 245–256.
28. LAVIT, Claude. Analyse conjointe de tableaux quantitatifs. Paris: Masson, 1988.
29. LEAL-FILHO, Walter; KOVALEVA, Marina; TSANI, Stella; AVTAR, Ram; KALBUS, Angelika; NAGY, G. Janos; O’RIORDAN, Timothy. Promoting gender equality across the Sustainable Development Goals. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 2023, vol. 25, p. 14177–14198. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02656-1
30. L’HERMIER DES PLANTES, Henri. Structuration des tableaux à trois indices de la statistique. Montpellier: Université des Sciences et Techniques du Languedoc, 1976.
31. LORING, Philip A.; HINZMAN, Michael S.; NEUFELD, Sarah. Can people be sentinels of sustainability? FACETS, 2017, vol. 1, p. 148–162. https://doi.org/10.1139/facets-2016-0022
32. LUBAALE, Emmanuel C.; BUDOO-SCHOLTZ, Anneke. Violence against women in Africa: A human rights violation necessitating criminal accountability. En: Violence Against Women and Criminal Justice in Africa. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75949-0_2
33. PEARSON, Karl. On lines and planes of closest fit to systems of points in space. Philosophical Magazine, 1901, vol. 2, no. 11, p. 559–572. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786440109462720
34. PRADHAN, Prajal; COSTA, Luis; RYBSKI, Diego; LUCHT, Wolfgang; KROPP, Jürgen P. A systematic study of Sustainable Development Goal interactions. Earth’s Future, 2017, vol. 5, p. 1169–1179. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017EF000632
35. PRADHAN, Prajal; SUBEDI, Dilli R.; KHATIWADA, Dipak; JOSHI, Keshav K.; KAFLE, Suresh; CHHETRI, Ramesh P.; et al. The COVID-19 pandemic not only poses challenges, but also opens opportunities for sustainable transformation. Earth’s Future, 2021, vol. 9, e2021EF001996. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021EF001996
36. PRIETO, José M.; AMOR, Víctor; TURIAS, Ignacio; ALMORZA, Daniel; PINIELLA, Francisco. Evaluation of Paris MoU maritime inspections using a STATIS approach. Mathematics, 2021, vol. 9, p. 2092. https://doi.org/10.3390/math9172092
37. PSAKI, Stephanie R.; MCCARTHY, Kathryn J.; MENSCH, Barbara S. Measuring gender equality in education. Population and Development Review, 2018, vol. 44, p. 117–142. https://doi.org/10.1111/padr.12121
38. ROBERT, Philippe; ESCOUFIER, Yves. A unifying tool for linear multivariate statistical methods: The RV-coefficient. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series C, 1976, vol. 25, no. 3, p. 257–265. https://doi.org/10.2307/2347233
39. RODRÍGUEZ-MARTÍNEZ, Carlos C.; CUBILLA-MONTILLA, Miguel; VICENTE-GALINDO, Pablo; GALINDO-VILLARDÓN, Purificación. X-STATIS: A multivariate approach to characterize the evolution of e-participation. Mathematics, 2023, vol. 11, p. 1492. https://doi.org/10.3390/math11061492
40. ROLLAND, Aurélie; BERTRAND, François; MAUMY, Marion; JACQUET, Stéphane. Assessing phytoplankton structure using a powerful multiway statistical analysis. Water Research, 2009, vol. 43, no. 13, p. 3155–3168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2009.03.049
41. SACHS, Jeffrey D.; LAFORTUNE, Guillaume; FULLER, Grayson; DRUMM, Elliot. Sustainable Development Report 2023: Implementing the SDG Stimulus. Paris: SDSN; Dublin: Dublin University Press, 2023. https://doi.org/10.25546/102924
42. SAINI, Manish; ADEBAYO, Sola O.; SINGH, Harpreet; SHARMA, Sunil. Sustainable Development Goals for gender equality. Journal of Intelligent & Fuzzy Systems, 2023, vol. 44, no. 3, p. 5151–5162. https://doi.org/10.3233/JIFS-222384
43. SANTOS-SILVA, Marcos; KLASEN, Stephan. Gender inequality as a barrier to economic growth. Review of Economics of the Household, 2021, vol. 19, p. 581–614. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-020-09535-6
44. SCHOLTE, Jan Aart. The geography of collective identities in a globalizing world. Review of International Political Economy, 1996, vol. 3, no. 4, p. 565–607. https://doi.org/10.1080/09692299608434374
45. SHANG, Yifan; SIVERTSEN, Gunnar; CAO, Zhe; ZHANG, Lin. Gender differences in research focused on SDG 5. SocArXiv, 2021, p. 1–29. https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/3fapz
46. SHULLA, Kalterina; VOIGT, Benno F.; CIBIAN, Stefan; SCANDONE, Giuseppe; MARTINEZ, Eva; NELKOVSKI, Filip; SALEHI, Pooya. Effects of COVID-19 on the Sustainable Development Goals. Discover Sustainability, 2021, vol. 2, p. 15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-021-00026-x
47. SONG, Jie; JANG, Chang-Hoon. Unpacking the SDGs interlinkages. Sustainable Development, 2023, vol. 31, no. 4, p. 2784–2796. https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.2547
48. THIOULOUSE, Jean; DRAY, Stéphane; DUFOUR, Anne B.; SIBERCHICOT, Aurélie; JOMBART, Thibaut; PAVOINE, Sandrine. Analysing changes in co-structures. En: Multivariate Analysis of Ecological Data with ade4. New York: Springer, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-8850-1_10
49. THIOULOUSE, Jean; SIMIER, Michel; CHESSEL, Daniel. Simultaneous analysis of a sequence of paired ecological tables. Ecology, 2004, vol. 85, p. 272–283. https://doi.org/10.1890/02-0605
50. VIVIEN, Marc; SABATIER, Romain. A generalization of STATIS-ACT strategy: DO-ACT for two multiblocks tables. Computational Statistics & Data Analysis, 2004, vol. 46, no. 1, p. 155–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-9473(03)00146-4
51. VYAS-DOORGAPERSAD, Shikha. Challenges to achieve Goal 5 of the Sustainable Development Goals in South Africa. International Journal of Research in Business and Social Science, 2023, vol. 12, no. 6, p. 257–266. https://doi.org/10.20525/ijrbs.v12i6.2687
52. WARD, Joe H. Hierarchical grouping to optimize an objective function. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 1963, vol. 58, no. 301, p. 236–244. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1963.10500845
53. WARCHOLD, Anne; PRADHAN, Prajal; KROPP, Jürgen P. Variations in Sustainable Development Goal interactions. Sustainable Development, 2021, vol. 29, p. 285–299. https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.2145
54. WORLD BANK. World Bank Group country classifications by income level for FY24. Washington, DC: World Bank, 2024. https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/new-world-bank-group-country-classifications-income-level-fy24
55. YIN, Cheng; ZHAO, Wenwu; FU, Bojie; MEADOWS, Michael E.; PEREIRA, Paulo. Key axes of global progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2023, vol. 385, 135767. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.135767
56. YUAN, Hao; WANG, Xia; GAO, Lei; WANG, Tian; LIU, Bin; FANG, Jie; GAO, Yu. Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals has been slowed by indirect effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Communications Earth & Environment, 2023, vol. 4, p. 184. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-023-00846-x
Downloads
Publicado
Edição
Seção
Licença
Copyright (c) 2026 Entramado
Este trabalho está licenciado sob uma licença Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
