Revista Arista Crítica

2.1 TECHNOLOGY AS A TEACHING TOOL

Technology is a fundamental component of human development, and this article aims to delimit its importance and usefulness. The term technology derives from the Greek word techne, referring to art, technique, or crafts, and logos, meaning knowledge, discourse, or study (Mitcham, 1994). In this sense, technology encompasses the application of scientifically organized technical knowledge to create objects and artifacts that satisfy the needs of individuals and communities.

This definition suggests that technology has accompanied human progress throughout history. However, it must be understood in relation to the artificial, as the creation of human spaces is increasingly mediated by technology. In this regard, Solivérez (1991) states that “through technology, we transform the natural world by creating an artificial habitat, a technosphere that contains fewer unaltered natural elements. The process is not limited to the resolution of practical problems, which is the initial feature of techniques or technologies, but rather invades all fields of human activity” (p.4).

Technology can therefore be understood as the art of transforming the natural world into an artificial habitat that satisfies individual and social needs by facilitating and optimizing processes. In recent years, communication technology has experienced significant growth. According to UNESCO (1998), the rapid advancement of ICT has transformed the ways knowledge is constructed, acquired, and transmitted. Consequently, teachers must act as mediators and filters in the search for reliable and scientific knowledge (González et al., 2021).

In this context, Information and Communications Technologies (ICTs) refer to the set of resources, tools, equipment, computer programs, applications, networks, and media that enable the compilation, processing, storage, and transmission of information, including voice, data, text, video, and images (Law 1341, 2009, Art. 6). Based on these characteristics, ICTs can be considered an essential component of contemporary human experience, integrated into multiple aspects of daily life.

González et al. (2021) emphasize the importance of ICTs in the classroom, arguing that technology use has become a reality in educational contexts and has begun to challenge traditional teaching models. The impact of this evolution on the educational process is already being perceived. Although the tools change, Cabero (2007) noted that new technologies have led to the use of different methodologies, resulting in changes in the field of didactics. This situation has transformed the teacher become a creator of new tools that facilitate the analysis, reflection, and study of education and technology.

The teacher's role as a facilitator remains unchanged, as stated by Jiménez and Franco (2023), where students emphasized the importance of the teacher's continuous presence and guidance, whether in person or virtually. Furthermore, González et al. (2021) state that the role of the English teacher is transformed by implementing new techniques, turning them into facilitators of the processes developed in the classroom, using information and communication technologies. This transformation seeks to ensure that students effectively develop their learning process.

The use of ICTs in classrooms is becoming increasingly prevalent and represents a significant evolution in teaching methods and learning processes. However, the implementation in Colombia remains limited due to government policies, geographical barriers, and insufficient economic support for the educational sector. Despite these challenges, teachers play a crucial role in expanding access to this technologies and adapting them to diverse educational contexts across the country.

Finally, it is concluded that technology constitutes a fundamental tool for transforming education. Its growth, particularly in communication, has changed how knowledge is acquired and transmitted, requiring teachers to act as mediators to ensure students' learning processes. In the educational context, ICTs represents an evolution in teaching methods and learning processes. Teachers are required to become facilitators of learning processes through the appropriate use and application of technology. Despite the challenges in its implementation, teachers' creativity, inventiveness, and resourcefulness can contribute to considering ICTs as a didactic and pedagogical tool in the classroom, positively impacting education.

2.2 COMMUNICATIVE SKILLS

The concept of communicative skills encompasses several perspectives, some of which are discussed in this section. Chomsky (1965) introduced the term linguistic competence to refer to “the abilities and dispositions for interpretation and performance”. However, this conception lacks elements that allow for a more precise delimitation of communicative competencies. Hymes (1971) expanded on this definition, conceiving it as a communicative performance that meets the demands of the environment. Although Hymes’s definition covers a significant part of communication, it overlooks the fundamental role of linguistics in this definition, which is crucial for teaching English as a second language. Piaget (1981) proposed the theory of cognitive development and the use of mental operations to explain the development of skills and communicative competencies in students. This theory considers the existence of abstract knowledge that intervenes in the psychomotor development of the student. In brief, communicative competencies refer to the ability and willingness of communicative actors to respond to the communicative demands of their environment, while considering the mental processes of everyone’s development.

According to Reyzábal (2012), communicative competencies are the set of knowledge, skills, and abilities required for appropriate, correct, coherent, and aesthetic use of both oral and written communication. This includes comprehension and expression, analysis and synthesis, identification, comparison, creation, and recreation of messages. The focus is on listening and speaking, as well as reading and writing competently. In this idea, the author proposes that communicative competence involves the effective use of a complex system of interdependent languages and codes. This allows a subject to be in constant contact through multiple signs and signals, without discarding the main one, which is verbal language (oral and written). Therefore, communicative competence refers to the ability to communicate clearly, coherently, and appropriately in any communicative situation.

Finally, competence can be defined as an individual's comprehensive ability to effectively understand, produce, and interpret messages in various contexts and using different media.

2.3 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Artificial intelligence is a widely used concept, although it is not new. It has been part of academic and technological discourse for several decades; however, it has gained greater relevance in recent years due to its increasing presence in everyday life. John McCarthy introduced the term artificial intelligence at the Dartmouth conference and defined it as “the science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs” (McCarthy, 1959). Since then, the definition of artificial intelligence has evolved according to different contexts and theoretical perspectives. Currently, there are several definitions of AI. For instance, Rusell and Norvig (2021), define artificial intelligence (AI) as a branch of computer science concerned with simulating intelligent behavior in machines, including their ability to imitate and, ideally, enhance aspects of human behavior. At its core, AI aims to develop systems that can learn from experience, adapt to new inputs, and perform tasks automatically without direct human intervention.

The field of artificial intelligence seeks to understand and replicate cognitive processes such as reasoning, learning, problem-solving, and decision-making, all based on computational models and algorithms. However, it is still widely considered that the cognitive component falls short when compared to the complexity and flexibility of human thinking. Significant advances have been made in machine learning algorithms and neural networks, particularly in the last decade. However, these systems still have limitations in terms of the breadth and depth of human thought. Yang (2022), recognizes this constraint, explaining that these systems remain highly limited as they lack comprehension of the true nature of the real world, as their training solely relies on extensive textual data.

AI encompasses a wide range of subfields, including machine learning and natural language processing (NLP). Machine learning develops algorithms that enable systems to learn from data and make predictions or decisions without written programming. NLP enables computers to understand, interpret, and generate human language intelligently. The integration of artificial intelligence and its subfields have facilitated its use in academia, medicine, training, and manufacturing industries.

2.4 CHATBOTS IN THE EFL CLASS

A chatbot is a computer program that simulates human conversations through text or voice interfaces. According to Akgun et al. (2021), chatbots are automated conversational agents that use natural language processing and machine learning algorithms to interact with users in a human-like manner. Chatbots are computer programs that use artificial intelligence algorithms and natural language processing to understand human questions, requests, and responses. For Garcia-Brustenga et al. (2018), define chatbots as computer programs that replicate human-like conversations through natural language structures.

Chatbots provide useful conversational interactions in various contexts, ranging from business efficiency to personalized assistance. Their main objective is to emulate human conversation while minimizing human intervention in communication. According to Holotescu and Holotescu (2016), automated conversational agents have become increasingly common because they are widely used to replicate customer service interaction in various domains. Chatbots are being created to meet the increasing demand and are used in various fields to replace human agents in completing tasks and providing social and emotional support. Fryer et al. (2019), chatbots can play the role of a tireless assistant, freeing humans from repetitive work. This ability to emulate and assist is transforming the way we interact with technology. As Bilquise et al. (2022) state, “conversational technologies are transforming landscape of human-machine” (p. 1).

In short, chatbots are conversational technologies that generate human-like interactions with the purpose of assisting users, simplifying tasks, and facilitating human-machine interaction.

FIGURE 1. STEPS OF METHODOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Note: The image shows a flow chart describing the steps of the research methodology using the iterative approach.

FIGURE 2. RESEARCH FINDINGS

Note: The image shows the results found in this research regarding the use of chatbots in English language teaching.

4.1 CONTRIBUTION OF CHATBOTS TO THE LEARNING PROCESS FOR STUDENTS

Based on the research conducted on the use of chatbots, technology, and education, this section synthesizes the emerging findings from the 13 reviewed articles, with special emphasis on students’ perceptions, interaction, and identified limitations. Recent studies show that the use of chatbots in foreign language learning has positive effects on motivation, anxiety reduction, communication skills, and self-directed learning.

4.2 MOTIVATION IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING

Several studies have found that the implementation of technology, specifically chatbots, positively affects students' motivation and improves their English language learning experience. Through the use of chatbots, students can be more actively involved in knowledge exploration and integration. Additionally, chatbots may serve as a motivational tools for language practice at home by providing more authentic exposure to the target language. In this regard, Chuah et al. (2021), state, “there is a huge potential of using chatbots to encourage ESL students to actively use the target language, as ESL learners tend to lack the chance to use them at home” (p. 11).

In the exploratory study conducted by Chuah et al. (2021), it was concluded from the information collected through the research instruments used, that is, online surveys and questionnaires with elements of the Likert scale and based on the theoretical framework Community of Inquiry (CoI), that teachers' perception of the influence of chatbots on students' motivation to learn English was positive. After analyzing the data, it was evident that chatbots were perceived as tools that can increase opportunities for authentic language use, provide engaging activities that improve students' understanding, and have a wide catalog of useful resources. The above translates into a greater interest in getting involved in learning a second language.

4.3 ANXIETY REDUCTION IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING

Anxiety has been widely addressed on research on learning processes, particularly in the teaching and learning of English. Learning English in a Spanish-speaking country can be challenging, as students may experience anxiety related to making mistakes, speaking incorrectly, or being evaluated by the teacher, who is often perceived as an authority figure. Previous research that has been carried out with the implementation of chatbots has shown that chatbots have greatly reduced the anxiety of students in Taiwan and China by offering a less threatening environment, as mentioned by Hsu et al. (2021), “It can be seen that TPBOT is a great assisted self-learning tool to help eliminate learners' anxiety about speaking foreign languages with foreigners'' (p.10).

In the study conducted by Hsu et al. (2021), the central issue addressed was anxiety when speaking English as a foreign language. The authors proposed the implementation of an artificial intelligence chatbot called TOEIC Practice Chatbot (TPBOT) as a tool to help students reduce speaking anxiety and improve their English-speaking skills. This intervention was particularly related to preparation for the TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication), a standardized test that assesses English reading and listening comprehension skills in international workplace contexts.

The TPBOT chatbot used in the study was accessible through the LINE platform on students’ mobile phones. It was equipped with an automatic correction system that allowed users to practice pronunciation and engage in dialogues with the chatbot. The researchers divided the participants into two groups: an experimental group and a control group. The experimental group used the chatbot for oral training over a four-month period, whereas the control group did not use the chatbot. After the implementation process and data analysis, the results showed a significant improvement in the oral expression scores of the experimental group compared with the control group. These results appeared to generate a sense of satisfaction and confidence among participants, which consequently contributed, to a reduction in anxiety when speaking English.

4.4 ENGLISH SPEAKING THROUGH INTERACTIVE CHATBOTS

The reviewed studies suggest that interactive chatbots can contribute to the development of English-speaking skills by providing students with additional opportunities for oral practice. Some students perceived a significant improvement in their daily use of chatbots, particularly in terms of interaction and fluency. However, lower-proficiency students showed varied results in final evaluations, suggesting that chatbots may function more effectively as practice tools than as stand-alone solutions for language learning (Yin & Star, 2020).

This difficulty acted as a form of feedback, allowing the student to understand how to pronounce a word properly. Furthermore, when chatbots are perceived as authentic conversational partners, students' interactions with them may become more natural and effective. These findings suggest that the integration of technologies such as chatbots can be a valuable tool for improving for improving communicative skills in a foreign language.

Studies have shown that chatbot use can support the development of speaking skills. Hsu et al. (2021) reported that “the students in the experimental group have effectively improved their English-speaking ability through interactive learning with TPBOT. In addition, their post-simulated test scores have also been significantly improved” (p.11). Participation with the TPBOT (Teacher's Personal Bot) has proven to be especially beneficial, as students experience a notable improvement in the accuracy of their oral expression, thanks to the immediate responses provided by the chatbot (p.11).

Overall, the findings related to improving speaking are that it encourages continuous practice of the language, encourages, and facilitates language exercises, allowing students to acquire a deeper understanding and greater fluency in English. Therefore, chatbots may support the development of communicative skills, especially speaking skills, in foreign language learning contexts.

4.5 CHATBOT AS AUTONOMOUS LEARNING

According to Huang et al. (2022), "chatbots can perform the function of learning partners outside the classroom" (p. 15). This suggests that chatbots may support and facilitate the learning process even when the student is not under the direct supervision of the teacher or physically present in the classroom. This is possible because chatbots can function as self-learning tools due to their accessibility, availability, and capacity to provide immediate feedback. Additionally, chatbots may reinforce and connect classroom content with real-life situations. In this regard, Essel et al. (2022) state that “using chatbots as a learning tool can help students connect what they are studying with real-world challenges, encouraging them to reason in-depth about their studies” (p. 14).

Furthermore, Huang et al. (2022) concluded that chatbots can serve as support tools for students who struggle with language learning content. This support may include clarification of concepts, resolution of doubts, daily language practice, and feedback. Chatbots may also fulfil two additional roles that promote self-learning: interlocution and transmission. As interlocutors, chatbots simulate human interaction and actively participate in conversations. This enables artificial intelligence to create an interactive and adaptable learning environment that promotes educational practice beyond the classroom.

5.1 DEFICIENCY IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF COGNITIVE SKILLS

Chatbots are designed to function under patterns and operate using predefined algorithms; therefore, they cannot adapt to the individual needs of the student, that is, they do not consider the student's context, they cannot provide emotional support, and they cannot encourage creativity. and innovation in the same way that a human being would do based on life experiences. Additionally, Chuah et al. (2021), concluded that “cognitive presence was perceived as lacking due to chatbots not being intelligent enough to prompt students to engage in deeper reflection” (p. 9). Thus, chatbots' ability to understand the deeper meaning of questions and generate answers that promote deep reflection may be limited.

In another instance, the research carried out by Huang et al. (2022) mentions that most of the research that focuses on the use of chatbots does not consider the quality in terms of cognitive learning but rather pays more attention to the number of interactions between students and chatbots. Therefore, researchers called for the importance of evaluating the nature and quality of these interactions in relation to language learning.

5.2 STUDENTS LEXICAL LIMITATIONS IN USING VOCABULARY IN CONTEXT

Chatbots may have difficulty contextualizing vocabulary within meaningful sentences and conversations because they often generate responses to specific prompts without fully considering the broader context or communicative situation. Students in their initial stages of foreign language acquisition may rely more on context to understand the meaning and use of words.

In the study carried out by Yin & Satar (2020), students with a lower linguistic proficiency experienced difficulties understanding the content due to the lexical elements generated in the interaction between the pedagogical chatbot and the students. As a result of this limitation, students were often required to adjust their responses to align with the chatbot’s expected input and improve interaction with the artificial intelligence system.

Chuah et al. (2021) conducted a study that analyzed teachers’ perceptions of chatbot use. The findings showed that chatbots were perceived as useful tools for simulating authentic language use. However, teachers expressed concerns about chatbot accuracy, particularly in the correction of grammatical errors. Additionally, chatbots were perceived as effective in creating social and teaching presence, but their cognitive presence was considered weaker since they were not intelligent enough to encourage deeper reflection.

• Implications for teachers

During the research that has been carried out regarding the use of chatbots, technology, and education, this section synthesizes of the emerging findings from 13 reviewed articles, with special emphasis on the implications for teachers in terms of usability, adaptation, and the challenges with using chatbots as a pedagogical tool.

• Usability

Chatbots can be easily usable tools in the educational field according to teachers. Artificial intelligence is an assistance tool that is not complex to install, its design is friendly, so its introduction is simple and minimal effort is required for its use. Chuah and Kabilan (2021) stated that “teachers also believed that chatbots are easy to use (mean = 4.34) and had no difficulty introducing them to students during teaching and learning activities" (p. 9).

In their study, Chuah et al. (2021) found that teachers had a positive perception of using chatbots to teach English. The authors noted that chatbots can facilitate the simulation of authentic language use, support social and teaching presence and provide immediate feedback. Teachers also emphasized the ease of use of chatbots. With the characteristics listed above in mind, it can be argued that chatbots have the potential to serve as effective pedagogical and didactic tools for English language teaching. When implemented appropriately, they can contribute to accessible learning environments for both teachers and students.

However, Chuah et al. (2021) also identified some shortcomings in the use of chatbots in education. Teachers expressed concerns about the accuracy of the chatbots, particularly in correcting grammatical errors. Additionally, they perceived that chatbots lack the cognitive presence necessary to stimulate deeper reflection in students. Finally, the teachers expressed the need for more intelligent responses, greater accuracy in feedback, the inclusion of collaborative features, and the design of a variety of activities. Despite these concerns, the teachers accepted chatbots as a classroom tool.

• Teachers’ Challenges of Using Chatbots

In contrast, González et al. (2021) argue that the teaching of English as a foreign language needs to be rethought to meet the demands of the current generation, requiring well-trained teachers. In the Colombian context, new teacher training is needed in the classrooms of English majors and in general, especially considering that, although some educational institutions have technological resources, there are still challenges in their effective integration into the teaching-learning process. Also, it is accurate to conclude that educators have been slow to adopt technological innovations. While teachers use ICTs resources, they still manage them in a similar way to traditional tools and do not allow technology to gain greater relevance in the classrooms.

As González et al. (2021) emphasize, “include training spaces within English majors, in which they are dedicated to training teachers capable of using technology, giving it an important meaning as a tool, for pedagogical use, in such a way so that its pedagogical praxis is innovative and interesting for those who are learning the foreign language” (p. 14).

Hwang & Chang (2021) discuss the advantages and difficulties of implementing chatbots in the classroom. They note that teachers must navigate structural situations, resource limitations, and environmental provisions. The researchers suggest that Colombia can benefit from integrating ICTs into the teaching of English as a Second Language (EISL). Firstly, the cognitive and symbolic benefits that ICT brings to the educational process are highlighted, allowing greater development of skills in students. Furthermore, its implementation contributes to the technological, administrative, and pedagogical progress of educational institutions, promoting a more dynamic and updated learning environment.

However, the implementation of ICTs in educational environments also faces various difficulties. Economic, infrastructure, social, or cultural investment limitations can hinder equitable access to these tools. Addressing these barriers is crucial to ensuring inclusive and equitable education, as disadvantaged sectors are at risk of exclusion. Finally, it should be noted that while teachers may introduce various subjects for the use of chatbots, they can also create spaces for recreational activities and learning about the importance and integration of AI.

It is crucial to promote technological literacy among educational stakeholders, as the need to develop technological skills for online education is widely recognized. New generations have different needs and interests; therefore, English teachers must be prepared to respond to the demands of the modern educational context. Cely-Betancourt (2023) states that it is necessary to implement active methodologies and new ways of teaching, as well as to develop thinking through creative proposals.

Educational authorities also have a fundamental responsibility to ensure equitable access to ICTs in education, promoting equal opportunities. Ethical aspects, such as promoting science, technology, and innovation by teachers and developing technical and soft skills for the effective use of ICTs in teaching English as a second language, should also be considered.