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https://doi.org/10.18041/2745-1453/rac.4.11714

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Cómo citar:

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Los invisibles agentes ਍㰀猀瀀愀渀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀匀瀀攀氀氀䔀㸀攀搀甀挀愀琀椀瘀漀猀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀 㰀猀瀀愀渀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀匀瀀攀氀氀䔀㸀攀渀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀 氀愀 㰀猀瀀愀渀ഀഀ class=SpellE>planificación y política Crítica, 4. ਍栀琀琀瀀猀㨀⼀⼀搀漀椀⸀漀爀最⼀㄀　⸀㄀㠀　㐀㄀⼀㈀㜀㐀㔀ⴀ㄀㐀㔀㌀⼀爀愀挀⸀㐀⸀㄀㄀㜀㄀㐀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀戀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀䴀猀漀一漀爀洀愀氀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀氀椀渀攀ⴀ栀攀椀最栀琀㨀㄀㔀　─✀㸀㰀戀㸀㰀猀瀀愀渀 氀愀渀最㴀䔀一ⴀ唀匀ഀഀ style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-ansi-language:EN-US'> 

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Abstract

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Keywords

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Introduction

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To establish a state-of-the-art overview, a ਍挀漀洀瀀爀攀栀攀渀猀椀瘀攀 戀椀戀氀椀漀最爀愀瀀栀椀挀 爀攀瘀椀攀眀 眀愀猀 挀漀渀搀甀挀琀攀搀Ⰰ 攀砀愀洀椀渀椀渀最 漀瘀攀爀 㘀　 爀攀猀攀愀爀挀栀ഀഀ articles. Two clear trends emerged from this analysis. The first trend shows ਍琀栀愀琀 愀 猀椀最渀椀昀椀挀愀渀琀 瀀漀爀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 琀栀攀 氀椀琀攀爀愀琀甀爀攀 昀漀挀甀猀攀猀 漀渀 琀爀愀挀椀渀最 琀栀攀ഀഀ trajectories of language policies implemented in various countries. The second ਍琀爀攀渀搀 栀椀最栀氀椀最栀琀猀 琀栀愀琀 琀攀愀挀栀攀爀猀 愀爀攀 昀爀攀焀甀攀渀琀氀礀 瀀漀爀琀爀愀礀攀搀 愀猀 琀栀攀 猀漀氀攀 攀搀甀挀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀ഀഀ stakeholders responsible for policy implementation. In the second section of ਍琀栀椀猀 爀攀瘀椀攀眀Ⰰ 䤀 瀀爀攀猀攀渀琀 愀 眀椀搀攀ⴀ爀愀渀最椀渀最 愀渀愀氀礀猀椀猀 漀昀 氀愀眀猀 愀渀搀 爀攀最甀氀愀琀椀漀渀猀ഀഀ concerning language policies from different countries. This analysis provides ਍椀渀猀椀最栀琀 椀渀琀漀 栀漀眀 最漀瘀攀爀渀洀攀渀琀愀氀 漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀猀 愀渀搀 栀椀猀琀漀爀椀挀愀氀 挀漀渀琀攀砀琀猀 猀栀愀瀀攀 琀栀攀ഀഀ formulation of these regulations. Additionally, it examines the introduction of ਍琀栀攀 䔀渀最氀椀猀栀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 椀渀琀漀 搀椀昀昀攀爀攀渀琀 渀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 挀漀渀琀攀砀琀猀 愀渀搀 椀搀攀渀琀椀昀椀攀猀 琀栀攀ഀഀ educational stakeholders mentioned in the literature.

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This comprehensive analysis enables readers to ਍挀漀洀瀀愀爀攀 琀栀攀漀爀攀琀椀挀愀氀 昀爀愀洀攀眀漀爀欀猀 漀昀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 瀀漀氀椀挀礀 眀椀琀栀 琀栀攀椀爀 瀀爀愀挀琀椀挀愀氀ഀഀ application across different countries, thus fostering a better understanding ਍漀昀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 瀀漀氀椀挀礀 洀愀渀愀最攀洀攀渀琀⸀ 䤀琀 愀氀猀漀 猀栀攀搀猀 氀椀最栀琀 漀渀 琀栀攀 瀀漀猀椀琀椀漀渀 愀渀搀ഀഀ recognition of various educational stakeholders within these processes.

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Language policy and planning overview

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Baldauf ਍⠀㄀㤀㤀㜀⤀Ⰰ ☀焀甀漀琀㬀氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 瀀漀氀椀挀椀攀猀☀焀甀漀琀㬀 爀攀昀攀爀 琀漀 爀甀氀攀猀 愀渀搀 爀攀最甀氀愀琀椀漀渀猀 最漀瘀攀爀渀椀渀最ഀഀ language use within communities, while "language planning" ਍攀渀挀漀洀瀀愀猀猀攀猀 琀栀攀 椀搀攀愀猀Ⰰ 瀀漀氀椀挀椀攀猀Ⰰ 戀攀氀椀攀昀猀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 瀀爀愀挀琀椀挀攀猀 愀椀洀攀搀 愀琀 攀昀昀攀挀琀椀渀最ഀഀ planned changes in language use.

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Years later, Kucukoglu (2012) expanded on ਍琀栀攀 挀漀洀瀀氀攀砀椀琀椀攀猀 漀昀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 瀀漀氀椀挀礀 戀礀 攀砀愀洀椀渀椀渀最 栀椀猀琀漀爀椀挀愀氀 攀砀愀洀瀀氀攀猀 眀栀攀爀攀ഀഀ different policies influenced stakeholders in varied ways. Building on Corson's ਍⠀㄀㤀㤀㤀⤀ 瀀攀爀猀瀀攀挀琀椀瘀攀Ⰰ 㰀猀瀀愀渀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀匀瀀攀氀氀䔀㸀䬀甀挀甀欀漀最氀甀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀 搀攀猀挀爀椀戀攀猀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀ഀഀ policy as a set of nationally agreed-upon principles that guide decision-makers ਍椀渀 洀愀欀椀渀最 椀渀昀漀爀洀攀搀 愀渀搀 戀愀氀愀渀挀攀搀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀ⴀ爀攀氀愀琀攀搀 搀攀挀椀猀椀漀渀猀⸀ 匀椀洀椀氀愀爀氀礀Ⰰ 㰀猀瀀愀渀ഀഀ class=SpellE>Djite (1994) emphasizes the role of governments in shaping ਍琀栀攀 爀攀氀愀琀椀漀渀猀栀椀瀀 戀攀琀眀攀攀渀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 愀渀搀 猀漀挀椀攀琀礀Ⰰ 瀀愀爀琀椀挀甀氀愀爀氀礀 琀栀爀漀甀最栀 攀搀甀挀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀ഀഀ policies. Liddicoat (2004) further explores how language planning in education ਍愀昀昀攀挀琀猀 琀栀攀 椀渀琀攀爀愀挀琀椀漀渀 戀攀琀眀攀攀渀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 愀渀搀 猀漀挀椀愀氀 氀椀昀攀Ⰰ 琀栀甀猀 甀渀搀攀爀猀挀漀爀椀渀最 琀栀攀ഀഀ significance of education and bilingual policies.

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Spolsky (2004) define language policy as a combination of ਍瀀氀愀渀渀攀搀 愀渀搀 甀渀瀀氀愀渀渀攀搀Ⰰ 㰀猀瀀愀渀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀䜀爀愀洀䔀㸀漀昀昀椀挀椀愀氀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀 愀渀搀 甀渀漀昀昀椀挀椀愀氀Ⰰ 漀瘀攀爀琀ഀഀ and covert interventions that influence language beliefs and usage across ਍搀椀昀昀攀爀攀渀琀 猀漀挀椀漀挀甀氀琀甀爀愀氀 挀漀渀琀攀砀琀猀⸀ 吀栀椀猀 戀爀漀愀搀攀爀 搀攀昀椀渀椀琀椀漀渀 爀攀昀氀攀挀琀猀 琀栀攀 挀漀洀瀀氀攀砀ഀഀ and dynamic nature of the field, which continues to evolve.

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These types of planning encompass four primary processes: creation, ਍椀渀琀攀爀瀀爀攀琀愀琀椀漀渀Ⰰ 椀洀瀀氀攀洀攀渀琀愀琀椀漀渀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 攀瘀愀氀甀愀琀椀漀渀⸀ 刀攀挀攀渀琀 猀琀甀搀椀攀猀 栀愀瘀攀 椀搀攀渀琀椀昀椀攀搀ഀഀ three additional processes—adoption, adaptation, and appropriation—that may ਍漀挀挀甀爀 戀攀昀漀爀攀 琀栀攀 攀瘀愀氀甀愀琀椀漀渀 瀀栀愀猀攀Ⰰ 搀攀瀀攀渀搀椀渀最 漀渀 挀漀洀洀甀渀椀琀礀 挀漀渀琀攀砀琀猀⸀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀䴀猀漀一漀爀洀愀氀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀洀猀漀ⴀ洀愀爀最椀渀ⴀ琀漀瀀ⴀ愀氀琀㨀愀甀琀漀㬀洀猀漀ⴀ洀愀爀最椀渀ⴀ戀漀琀琀漀洀ⴀ愀氀琀㨀愀甀琀漀㬀ഀഀ text-align:justify;line-height:150%'>Numerous agents operate at various levels within the processes of ਍氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 瀀漀氀椀挀礀 愀渀搀 瀀氀愀渀渀椀渀最⸀ 䔀昀昀攀挀琀椀瘀攀 挀漀氀氀愀戀漀爀愀琀椀漀渀 愀洀漀渀最 琀栀攀猀攀 猀琀愀欀攀栀漀氀搀攀爀猀ഀഀ is essential to improve policy development and implementation outcomes. As ਍瀀爀攀瘀椀漀甀猀氀礀 洀攀渀琀椀漀渀攀搀Ⰰ 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 瀀漀氀椀挀椀攀猀 愀爀攀 猀琀爀甀挀琀甀爀攀搀 愀挀爀漀猀猀 搀椀昀昀攀爀攀渀琀 氀攀瘀攀氀猀㨀ഀഀ macro, meso, and micro. Unfortunately, over the past ਍琀眀攀渀琀礀 礀攀愀爀猀Ⰰ 爀攀猀攀愀爀挀栀 栀愀猀 瀀爀攀搀漀洀椀渀愀渀琀氀礀 昀漀挀甀猀攀搀 漀渀 琀栀攀 洀愀挀爀漀 氀攀瘀攀氀Ⰰ 眀栀椀氀攀ഀഀ exploration at the micro level remains limited. According to Kaplan (1997), ਍琀栀椀猀 最愀瀀 椀渀 琀栀攀 氀椀琀攀爀愀琀甀爀攀 洀愀礀 戀攀 搀甀攀 琀漀 愀 瀀攀爀挀攀椀瘀攀搀 氀愀挀欀 漀昀 瀀爀攀猀琀椀最攀ഀഀ associated with micro-level analysis (p. 52).

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meso level manages their ਍椀渀琀攀爀瀀爀攀琀愀琀椀漀渀Ⰰ 眀栀攀爀攀 瀀漀氀椀挀椀攀猀 洀愀礀 戀攀 愀氀琀攀爀攀搀 愀猀 琀栀攀礀 洀漀瘀攀 琀栀爀漀甀最栀 瘀愀爀椀漀甀猀ഀഀ administrative layers—either through revisions in newly drafted documents or ਍爀攀椀渀琀攀爀瀀爀攀琀愀琀椀漀渀猀 漀昀 攀砀椀猀琀椀渀最 漀渀攀猀 ⠀㰀猀瀀愀渀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀匀瀀攀氀氀䔀㸀刀椀挀攀渀琀漀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀 ☀愀洀瀀㬀ഀഀ Hornberger, 1996, p. 417). The micro level, in turn, focuses on the ਍椀洀瀀氀攀洀攀渀琀愀琀椀漀渀 愀渀搀 愀瀀瀀爀漀瀀爀椀愀琀椀漀渀 瀀爀漀挀攀猀猀攀猀⸀ 一漀琀愀戀氀礀Ⰰ 洀椀挀爀漀ⴀ氀攀瘀攀氀 愀最攀渀琀猀 椀渀挀氀甀搀攀ഀഀ teachers, students, and parents. In practice, these stakeholders often find ਍琀栀攀洀猀攀氀瘀攀猀 椀渀 琀栀攀 瀀漀猀椀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 椀洀瀀氀攀洀攀渀琀椀渀最 搀攀挀椀猀椀漀渀猀 洀愀搀攀 戀礀ഀഀ "experts" in government, education boards, or central administration, ਍眀椀琀栀 琀栀攀椀爀 瀀攀爀猀瀀攀挀琀椀瘀攀猀 愀渀搀 挀漀渀琀爀椀戀甀琀椀漀渀猀 昀爀攀焀甀攀渀琀氀礀 挀漀渀猀椀搀攀爀攀搀 漀渀氀礀 愀猀 愀渀ഀഀ afterthought (Ricento & Hornberger, 1996, p. ਍㐀㄀㜀⤀⸀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀䴀猀漀一漀爀洀愀氀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀洀猀漀ⴀ洀愀爀最椀渀ⴀ琀漀瀀ⴀ愀氀琀㨀愀甀琀漀㬀洀猀漀ⴀ洀愀爀最椀渀ⴀ戀漀琀琀漀洀ⴀ愀氀琀㨀愀甀琀漀㬀ഀഀ text-align:justify;line-height:150%'>However, language policy planning also involves other educational ਍猀琀愀欀攀栀漀氀搀攀爀猀 眀栀漀 瀀氀愀礀 愀 挀漀洀瀀氀攀洀攀渀琀愀爀礀 爀漀氀攀 椀渀 猀甀瀀瀀漀爀琀椀渀最 琀栀攀 椀洀瀀氀攀洀攀渀琀愀琀椀漀渀 愀渀搀ഀഀ appropriation processes. As Ricento and Hornberger ਍⠀㄀㤀㤀㘀⤀ 攀砀瀀氀愀椀渀Ⰰ 䔀渀最氀椀猀栀 䰀愀渀最甀愀最攀 吀攀愀挀栀椀渀最 ⠀䔀䰀吀⤀ 瀀爀漀昀攀猀猀椀漀渀愀氀猀᐀眠栀攀琀栀攀爀 琀栀攀礀 愀爀攀ഀഀ teachers, program developers, materials and textbook writers, administrators, ਍挀漀渀猀甀氀琀愀渀琀猀Ⰰ 漀爀 愀挀愀搀攀洀椀挀猀᐀愠爀攀 愀挀琀椀瘀攀氀礀 攀渀最愀最攀搀 椀渀 琀栀椀猀 攀渀搀攀愀瘀漀爀 ⠀瀀⸀ 㐀　㠀⤀⸀ 吀栀攀猀攀ഀഀ stakeholders promote the adoption of language policies by providing resources ਍愀渀搀 洀愀琀攀爀椀愀氀猀 琀栀愀琀 攀渀挀漀甀爀愀最攀 琀攀愀挀栀攀爀猀Ⰰ 猀琀甀搀攀渀琀猀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 瀀愀爀攀渀琀猀 琀漀 椀洀瀀氀攀洀攀渀琀 愀渀搀ഀഀ appropriate the proposed policies.

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This perspective aligns with Ricento and ਍䠀漀爀渀戀攀爀最攀爀ᤀ猠 ⠀㄀㤀㤀㘀⤀ 漀戀猀攀爀瘀愀琀椀漀渀猀 琀栀愀琀 椀渀猀琀椀琀甀琀椀漀渀猀 戀攀礀漀渀搀 爀攀氀椀最椀漀甀猀ഀഀ organizations—such as publishers, broadcast media, schools, and ਍甀渀椀瘀攀爀猀椀琀椀攀猀᐀瀠氀愀礀 猀椀最渀椀昀椀挀愀渀琀 爀漀氀攀猀 愀猀 瀀漀氀椀挀礀洀愀欀攀爀猀Ⰰ 攀瘀愀氀甀愀琀漀爀猀Ⰰ 漀瀀椀渀椀漀渀ഀഀ leaders, gatekeepers, and, at times, perpetuators of the existing social order ਍⠀瀀⸀ 㐀㄀㘀⤀⸀ 吀栀攀猀攀 椀渀猀琀椀琀甀琀椀漀渀猀 渀漀琀 漀渀氀礀 搀爀椀瘀攀 琀栀攀 椀洀瀀氀攀洀攀渀琀愀琀椀漀渀 漀昀ഀഀ government-formulated language policies but also, in some cases, contribute to ਍琀栀攀 挀爀攀愀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 渀攀眀 瀀漀氀椀挀椀攀猀 愀猀 琀栀攀礀 愀搀搀爀攀猀猀 攀洀攀爀最椀渀最 挀栀愀氀氀攀渀最攀猀 愀渀搀 猀攀攀欀ഀഀ solutions to problematic situations.

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Language policies have been a global phenomenon ਍猀椀渀挀攀 琀栀攀 戀攀最椀渀渀椀渀最 漀昀 挀椀瘀椀氀椀稀愀琀椀漀渀Ⰰ 眀椀琀栀 攀愀挀栀 挀漀甀渀琀爀礀 渀愀瘀椀最愀琀椀渀最 琀栀攀猀攀ഀഀ processes differently throughout history. The objectives of language policies ਍栀愀瘀攀 猀栀椀昀琀攀搀 椀渀 爀攀猀瀀漀渀猀攀 琀漀 挀栀愀渀最椀渀最 最漀瘀攀爀渀洀攀渀琀 瀀爀椀漀爀椀琀椀攀猀Ⰰ 眀栀攀琀栀攀爀 琀栀攀礀 戀攀ഀഀ religious, economic, social, political, or academic. For instance,

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However, as noted by Kinsiz, ਍㰀猀瀀愀渀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀匀瀀攀氀氀䔀㸀伀稀攀渀椀挀椀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 䐀攀洀椀爀 ⠀㈀　㄀㌀⤀Ⰰ 椀渀 吀甀爀欀攀礀Ⰰ 琀栀攀爀攀 椀猀 愀 氀愀挀欀ഀഀ of oversight regarding decisions made at the micro-level, as well as ਍椀渀猀甀昀昀椀挀椀攀渀琀 猀甀瀀瀀漀爀琀 昀漀爀 琀攀愀挀栀攀爀猀⸀ 䄀搀搀椀琀椀漀渀愀氀氀礀Ⰰ 洀愀琀攀爀椀愀氀 爀攀猀漀甀爀挀攀猀 愀爀攀ഀഀ lacking, and there are significant issues within the curriculum. These challenges ਍栀椀渀搀攀爀 琀栀攀 攀昀昀攀挀琀椀瘀攀渀攀猀猀 漀昀 䔀渀最氀椀猀栀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 琀攀愀挀栀椀渀最 愀渀搀 氀攀愀爀渀椀渀最⸀ 吀栀攀ഀഀ literature on Turkey reveals that there is limited information about the ਍椀渀瘀漀氀瘀攀洀攀渀琀 漀昀 瘀愀爀椀漀甀猀 攀搀甀挀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 猀琀愀欀攀栀漀氀搀攀爀猀Ⰰ 眀椀琀栀 琀攀愀挀栀攀爀猀 漀昀琀攀渀 戀攀椀渀最ഀഀ portrayed as the sole agents responsible for implementing language policy.

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Pouly (2012) ਍渀漀琀攀猀 琀栀愀琀 䔀渀最氀椀猀栀 眀愀猀 椀渀琀爀漀搀甀挀攀搀 椀渀 䘀爀愀渀挀攀 瀀爀椀洀愀爀椀氀礀 戀礀 䔀渀最氀椀猀栀 渀甀爀猀攀猀 愀渀搀ഀഀ private tutors who served the bourgeoisie and aristocracy, making it accessible ਍漀渀氀礀 琀漀 猀攀氀攀挀琀 猀漀挀椀愀氀 最爀漀甀瀀猀⸀ 䄀挀挀漀爀搀椀渀最 琀漀 㰀猀瀀愀渀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀匀瀀攀氀氀䔀㸀倀漀甀氀礀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀Ⰰഀഀ English was initially acquired through natural teaching methods within these ਍攀氀椀琀攀 挀椀爀挀氀攀猀⸀ 䠀漀眀攀瘀攀爀Ⰰ 愀昀琀攀爀 ㄀㠀㌀　Ⰰ 䔀渀最氀椀猀栀 戀攀最愀渀 琀漀 戀攀 琀愀甀最栀琀 椀渀 瀀甀戀氀椀挀ഀഀ educational institutions, driven by the goal of facilitating international ਍挀漀洀洀攀爀挀攀 愀渀搀 戀甀猀椀渀攀猀猀⸀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀琀攀砀琀ⴀ愀氀椀最渀㨀樀甀猀琀椀昀礀㬀氀椀渀攀ⴀ栀攀椀最栀琀㨀㄀㔀　─✀㸀㰀猀瀀愀渀 氀愀渀最㴀䔀一ⴀ唀匀ഀഀ style='mso-ansi-language:EN-US'>A similar situation occurred in Spain, where ਍氀愀渀最甀愀最攀猀 猀甀挀栀 愀猀 䔀甀猀欀愀爀愀Ⰰ 䌀愀琀愀氀愀渀Ⰰ 䜀愀氀氀攀最漀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 䌀愀猀琀攀氀氀愀渀漀 挀漀攀砀椀猀琀攀搀⸀ 䐀甀爀椀渀最ഀഀ Franco’s regime, however, Castellano was the only officially recognized ਍氀愀渀最甀愀最攀Ⰰ 攀渀昀漀爀挀攀搀 琀漀 甀渀椀昀礀 琀栀攀 渀愀琀椀漀渀⸀ 䴀椀渀漀爀椀琀礀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀猀 眀攀爀攀 愀挀琀椀瘀攀氀礀ഀഀ persecuted and stigmatized. As for the English language, it was initially ਍椀渀琀爀漀搀甀挀攀搀 椀渀 匀瀀愀椀渀 琀栀爀漀甀最栀 瀀爀椀瘀愀琀攀 猀攀挀漀渀搀愀爀礀 猀挀栀漀漀氀猀⸀ 䄀挀挀漀爀搀椀渀最 琀漀 䘀攀爀渀渀搀攀稀ഀഀ (2011), "In Madrid, students began to study English in institutions such ਍愀猀 琀栀攀 㰀攀洀㸀刀攀愀氀 㰀猀瀀愀渀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀匀瀀攀氀氀䔀㸀匀攀洀椀渀愀爀椀漀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀 搀攀 一漀戀氀攀猀㰀⼀攀洀㸀 椀渀 ㄀㠀　㐀Ⰰ 琀栀攀ഀഀ Colegio de San Mateo (1821-1823), and the Ateneo, founded in ਍㄀㠀㈀　☀焀甀漀琀㬀 ⠀琀爀愀渀猀氀愀琀攀搀 戀礀 琀栀攀 愀甀琀栀漀爀⤀⸀ 䘀攀爀渀渀搀攀稀 ⠀㈀　㄀㄀⤀ 昀甀爀琀栀攀爀 渀漀琀攀猀 琀栀愀琀ഀഀ interest in learning English grew significantly during the 19th century, as ਍匀瀀愀椀渀ᤀ猠 挀漀洀洀攀爀挀椀愀氀 爀攀氀愀琀椀漀渀猀 眀椀琀栀 䔀渀最氀愀渀搀 愀渀搀 琀栀攀 唀渀椀琀攀搀 匀琀愀琀攀猀 攀砀瀀愀渀搀攀搀⸀ 吀栀甀猀Ⰰഀഀ the primary motivation for learning English shifted from political interests to ਍攀挀漀渀漀洀椀挀 漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀猀Ⰰ 瀀愀爀琀椀挀甀氀愀爀氀礀 椀渀 琀栀攀 挀漀渀琀攀砀琀 漀昀 椀渀琀攀爀渀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 戀甀猀椀渀攀猀猀⸀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀琀攀砀琀ⴀ愀氀椀最渀㨀樀甀猀琀椀昀礀㬀氀椀渀攀ⴀ栀攀椀最栀琀㨀㄀㔀　─✀㸀㰀猀瀀愀渀 氀愀渀最㴀䔀一ⴀ唀匀ഀഀ style='mso-ansi-language:EN-US'>After examining the cases of France and Spain, ਍䤀 琀甀爀渀攀搀 洀礀 愀琀琀攀渀琀椀漀渀 琀漀 琀栀攀 唀渀椀琀攀搀 䬀椀渀最搀漀洀Ⰰ 攀猀瀀攀挀椀愀氀氀礀 最椀瘀攀渀 琀栀愀琀 䔀渀最氀椀猀栀 栀愀猀ഀഀ become the dominant language taught worldwide. As its name suggests, the United ਍䬀椀渀最搀漀洀 椀猀 愀 甀渀椀漀渀 漀昀 搀椀昀昀攀爀攀渀琀 爀攀最椀漀渀猀㨀 匀挀漀琀氀愀渀搀Ⰰ 䤀爀攀氀愀渀搀Ⰰ 圀愀氀攀猀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 䔀渀最氀愀渀搀⸀ഀഀ However, the formation of this union was neither peaceful nor voluntary; it was ਍搀爀椀瘀攀渀 戀礀 瀀漀氀椀琀椀挀愀氀 搀攀挀椀猀椀漀渀猀 昀爀漀洀 䔀渀最氀愀渀搀 愀椀洀攀搀 愀琀 挀漀渀猀漀氀椀搀愀琀椀渀最 瀀漀眀攀爀⸀ 伀渀攀 漀昀ഀഀ these political strategies involved the imposition of language policies that ਍昀漀爀挀攀搀 琀栀攀 瀀漀瀀甀氀愀琀椀漀渀 琀漀 愀搀漀瀀琀 䔀渀最氀椀猀栀 眀栀椀氀攀 愀戀愀渀搀漀渀椀渀最 琀栀攀椀爀 渀愀琀椀瘀攀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀猀Ⰰഀഀ such as Scottish Gaelic, Irish, Welsh, and other regional tongues. Initially, ਍琀栀攀猀攀 瀀漀氀椀挀椀攀猀 眀攀爀攀 瀀漀氀椀琀椀挀愀氀氀礀 洀漀琀椀瘀愀琀攀搀Ⰰ 愀椀洀攀搀 愀琀 猀琀爀攀渀最琀栀攀渀椀渀最 琀栀攀 欀椀渀最搀漀洀ᤀ猠ഀഀ unity. Over time, however, the focus of language policies shifted towards ਍攀挀漀渀漀洀椀挀 漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀猀⸀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀琀攀砀琀ⴀ愀氀椀最渀㨀樀甀猀琀椀昀礀㬀氀椀渀攀ⴀ栀攀椀最栀琀㨀㄀㔀　─✀㸀㰀猀瀀愀渀 氀愀渀最㴀䔀一ⴀ唀匀ഀഀ style='mso-ansi-language:EN-US'>According to Ceallaigh ਍⠀㈀　㈀　⤀Ⰰ 䤀爀攀氀愀渀搀 昀愀挀攀搀 愀渀 攀挀漀渀漀洀椀挀 搀攀瀀爀攀猀猀椀漀渀 琀栀愀琀 昀漀爀挀攀搀 洀愀渀礀 瀀攀漀瀀氀攀 琀漀 猀攀攀欀ഀഀ work abroad, compelling them to prioritize English over their native language ਍昀漀爀 攀挀漀渀漀洀椀挀 猀甀爀瘀椀瘀愀氀⸀ 䄀搀搀椀琀椀漀渀愀氀氀礀Ⰰ 挀栀椀氀搀爀攀渀 戀攀挀愀洀攀 椀渀挀爀攀愀猀椀渀最氀礀 攀砀瀀漀猀攀搀 琀漀ഀഀ the internet and global communication channels dominated by English content, ਍漀昀琀攀渀 猀瀀攀渀搀椀渀最 洀漀爀攀 琀椀洀攀 椀渀 琀栀攀猀攀 攀渀瘀椀爀漀渀洀攀渀琀猀 眀椀琀栀漀甀琀 琀栀攀 椀渀昀氀甀攀渀挀攀 漀昀 琀栀攀椀爀ഀഀ native language. Although the government aimed to promote the use of the Irish ਍氀愀渀最甀愀最攀Ⰰ 昀甀渀搀椀渀最 昀漀爀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 攀搀甀挀愀琀椀漀渀 眀愀猀 氀椀洀椀琀攀搀Ⰰ 爀攀猀甀氀琀椀渀最 椀渀 椀渀猀甀昀昀椀挀椀攀渀琀ഀഀ resources to hire qualified language teachers. This situation highlights how ਍攀挀漀渀漀洀椀挀 瀀爀椀漀爀椀琀椀攀猀 昀爀攀焀甀攀渀琀氀礀 漀瘀攀爀猀栀愀搀漀眀 猀漀挀椀愀氀 愀渀搀 挀甀氀琀甀爀愀氀 漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀猀⸀ 吀栀椀猀ഀഀ pattern is not unique to Ireland; similar inconsistencies between policy ਍爀栀攀琀漀爀椀挀 愀渀搀 瀀爀愀挀琀椀挀愀氀 椀洀瀀氀攀洀攀渀琀愀琀椀漀渀 愀爀攀 攀瘀椀搀攀渀琀 椀渀 匀漀甀琀栀 䄀洀攀爀椀挀愀Ⰰ 眀栀攀爀攀 愀ഀഀ significant gap exists between the written policies and their execution.

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Turning to European countries where language ਍瀀漀氀椀挀椀攀猀 栀愀瘀攀 戀攀攀渀 搀爀椀瘀攀渀 戀礀 瀀漀氀椀琀椀挀愀氀 漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀猀Ⰰ 漀渀攀 漀昀 琀栀攀 洀漀猀琀 挀漀洀瀀氀攀砀ഀഀ cases is that of former Yugoslavia. According to Babic (2010), the role of ਍氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 椀渀 琀栀攀 瀀爀漀挀攀猀猀 漀昀 渀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀椀猀洀 挀愀渀 戀攀 攀椀琀栀攀爀 瀀漀氀椀琀椀挀愀氀氀礀 椀渀琀攀最爀愀琀椀瘀攀 漀爀ഀഀ disintegrative. For instance, the use of Spanish in Spain, French in France, ਍愀渀搀 䔀渀最氀椀猀栀 椀渀 琀栀攀 唀渀椀琀攀搀 䬀椀渀最搀漀洀 椀氀氀甀猀琀爀愀琀攀猀 栀漀眀 愀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 挀愀渀 猀攀爀瘀攀 琀漀 甀渀椀昀礀ഀഀ a nation. However, in Yugoslavia, the opposite was true. Babic (2010) notes ਍琀栀愀琀 ☀焀甀漀琀㬀椀渀 琀栀攀 挀愀猀攀 漀昀 夀甀最漀猀氀愀瘀椀愀Ⰰ 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 栀愀猀 瀀氀愀礀攀搀 愀 瘀攀爀礀 椀洀瀀漀爀琀愀渀琀Ⰰ 椀昀ഀഀ not a major, role in national self-identification. The linguistically unified ਍匀攀爀戀漀ⴀ䌀爀漀愀琀椀愀渀⼀䌀爀漀愀琀漀ⴀ匀攀爀戀椀愀渀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 眀愀猀 甀猀攀搀 戀礀 猀瀀攀愀欀攀爀猀 眀栀漀 椀搀攀渀琀椀昀椀攀搀ഀഀ themselves, in terms of ethnonationalism, as Serbs, Croats, Muslims, and ਍䴀漀渀琀攀渀攀最爀椀渀猀☀焀甀漀琀㬀 ⠀瀀⸀ ㈀⤀⸀ 吀栀椀猀 氀椀渀最甀椀猀琀椀挀 甀渀椀琀礀Ⰰ 椀渀猀琀攀愀搀 漀昀 昀漀猀琀攀爀椀渀最ഀഀ integration, reinforced divisions along ethnic and national lines.

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Shohamy (2009), "these linguistic policies are driven ਍戀礀 眀椀猀栀攀猀 愀渀搀 愀猀瀀椀爀愀琀椀漀渀猀Ⰰ 戀礀 瀀漀氀椀琀椀挀愀氀 愀渀搀 攀挀漀渀漀洀椀挀 洀漀琀椀瘀愀琀椀漀渀猀☀焀甀漀琀㬀 ⠀瀀⸀ 㐀㜀⤀Ⰰഀഀ similar to what occurred in Yugoslavia with their ਍渀愀琀椀瘀攀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 瀀漀氀椀挀椀攀猀⸀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀琀攀砀琀ⴀ愀氀椀最渀㨀樀甀猀琀椀昀礀㬀氀椀渀攀ⴀ栀攀椀最栀琀㨀㄀㔀　─✀㸀㰀猀瀀愀渀 氀愀渀最㴀䔀一ⴀ唀匀ഀഀ style='mso-ansi-language:EN-US'>In this context, it is essential to recognize ਍琀栀愀琀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 瀀漀氀椀挀椀攀猀 昀甀渀挀琀椀漀渀 愀猀 椀渀猀琀爀甀洀攀渀琀猀 漀昀 瀀漀眀攀爀Ⰰ 愀氀氀漀眀椀渀最 瀀漀氀椀挀礀洀愀欀攀爀猀ഀഀ to impose their beliefs and ideologies, thereby reinforcing political control ਍愀渀搀 椀渀昀氀甀攀渀挀攀 漀瘀攀爀 瀀甀戀氀椀挀 瀀攀爀挀攀瀀琀椀漀渀⸀ 䄀猀 㰀猀瀀愀渀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀匀瀀攀氀氀䔀㸀匀栀漀栀愀洀礀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀ഀഀ (2009) asserts, "It is clear by now that language policy (LP) is not ਍渀攀甀琀爀愀氀Ⰰ 愀猀 椀琀 爀攀瀀爀攀猀攀渀琀猀 愀 猀椀最渀椀昀椀挀愀渀琀 琀漀漀氀 昀漀爀 瀀漀氀椀琀椀挀愀氀 瀀漀眀攀爀 愀渀搀ഀഀ manipulation" (p. 21). Language policies are deeply intertwined with ਍椀搀攀漀氀漀最礀Ⰰ 攀挀漀氀漀最礀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 洀愀渀愀最攀洀攀渀琀 ⠀㰀猀瀀愀渀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀匀瀀攀氀氀䔀㸀匀瀀漀氀猀欀礀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀Ⰰ ㈀　　㐀Ⰰ 愀猀ഀഀ cited in Shohamy, 2009). Moreover, there are policy ਍洀攀挀栀愀渀椀猀洀猀 琀栀愀琀 ☀焀甀漀琀㬀猀攀爀瘀攀 愀猀 洀攀搀椀愀琀漀爀猀 戀攀琀眀攀攀渀 椀搀攀漀氀漀最礀 愀渀搀 瀀爀愀挀琀椀挀攀Ⰰഀഀ effectively creating de facto policies" (Shohamy, ਍㈀　　㤀Ⰰ 瀀⸀ ㄀㄀⤀⸀ 吀栀攀猀攀 洀攀挀栀愀渀椀猀洀猀 椀渀挀氀甀搀攀 氀愀眀猀Ⰰ 爀甀氀攀猀Ⰰ 爀攀最甀氀愀琀椀漀渀猀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀ഀഀ education policies, which not only shape linguistic landscapes but also ਍椀渀琀攀渀猀椀昀礀 愀渀搀 猀甀瀀瀀漀爀琀 琀栀攀 瀀爀漀挀攀猀猀攀猀 漀昀 最氀漀戀愀氀椀稀愀琀椀漀渀⸀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀琀攀砀琀ⴀ愀氀椀最渀㨀樀甀猀琀椀昀礀㬀氀椀渀攀ⴀ栀攀椀最栀琀㨀㄀㔀　─✀㸀㰀猀瀀愀渀 氀愀渀最㴀䔀一ⴀ唀匀ഀഀ style='mso-ansi-language:EN-US'>Given the situations described above, language ਍瀀漀氀椀挀椀攀猀 最愀椀渀攀搀 攀瘀攀渀 最爀攀愀琀攀爀 最氀漀戀愀氀 猀椀最渀椀昀椀挀愀渀挀攀 眀栀攀渀 唀一䔀匀䌀伀 搀攀昀椀渀攀搀 愀ഀഀ "multilingual" individual as someone proficient in their mother ਍琀漀渀最甀攀Ⰰ 渀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 愀 昀漀爀攀椀最渀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀⸀ 唀一䔀匀䌀伀✀猀 爀攀挀漀洀洀攀渀搀愀琀椀漀渀猀ഀഀ emphasized the need "to identify the main lines of a language education ਍猀礀猀琀攀洀 琀栀愀琀 愀搀愀瀀琀猀 琀漀 琀栀攀 挀漀甀渀琀爀礀Ⰰ 昀愀挀椀氀椀琀愀琀攀猀 椀渀琀攀爀渀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 挀漀洀洀甀渀椀挀愀琀椀漀渀Ⰰ 愀渀搀ഀഀ preserves the inalienable linguistic and cultural heritage of each people for ਍栀甀洀愀渀椀琀礀☀焀甀漀琀㬀 ⠀唀一䔀匀䌀伀Ⰰ 刀攀挀漀爀搀 漀昀 琀栀攀 䜀攀渀攀爀愀氀 䌀漀渀昀攀爀攀渀挀攀Ⰰ ㄀㤀㤀㤀Ⰰ 愀猀 挀椀琀攀搀 椀渀ഀഀ Reyes et al., 2011, p. 173, translated by the author). Similarly, the OECD ਍☀焀甀漀琀㬀攀猀琀椀洀愀琀攀猀 琀栀愀琀 猀椀渀挀攀 䔀渀最氀椀猀栀 椀猀 琀栀攀 洀漀猀琀 眀椀搀攀氀礀 甀猀攀搀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 椀渀 攀挀漀渀漀洀椀挀ഀഀ transactions, it serves as a competitive advantage crucial for launching ਍戀甀猀椀渀攀猀猀攀猀☀焀甀漀琀㬀 ⠀刀攀礀攀猀 攀琀 愀氀⸀Ⰰ ㈀　㄀㄀Ⰰ 瀀⸀ ㄀㜀㌀Ⰰ 琀爀愀渀猀氀愀琀攀搀 戀礀 琀栀攀 愀甀琀栀漀爀⤀⸀ഀഀ However, while the OECD "recognizes that a lingua franca enhances economic ਍挀漀漀瀀攀爀愀琀椀漀渀 愀渀搀 椀渀琀攀爀搀攀瀀攀渀搀攀渀挀攀Ⰰ 椀琀 挀愀甀琀椀漀渀猀 琀栀愀琀 琀栀椀猀 猀栀漀甀氀搀 渀漀琀 挀漀洀攀 愀琀 琀栀攀ഀഀ expense of cultural and linguistic diversity" (Reyes et al., 2011, p. 174, ਍琀爀愀渀猀氀愀琀攀搀 戀礀 琀栀攀 愀甀琀栀漀爀⤀⸀ 吀栀甀猀Ⰰ 眀栀椀氀攀 䔀渀最氀椀猀栀 洀愀礀 猀攀爀瘀攀 愀猀 愀 氀椀渀最甀愀 昀爀愀渀挀愀 椀渀ഀഀ many countries, its use should be balanced to avoid solely pursuing economic ਍漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀猀 愀琀 琀栀攀 挀漀猀琀 漀昀 挀甀氀琀甀爀愀氀 搀椀瘀攀爀猀椀琀礀⸀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀琀攀砀琀ⴀ愀氀椀最渀㨀樀甀猀琀椀昀礀㬀氀椀渀攀ⴀ栀攀椀最栀琀㨀㄀㔀　─✀㸀㰀猀瀀愀渀 氀愀渀最㴀䔀一ⴀ唀匀ഀഀ style='mso-ansi-language:EN-US'>Over time, the creation of the European Union ਍⠀䔀唀⤀ 攀洀攀爀最攀搀 愀猀 愀 瀀爀漀樀攀挀琀 琀栀愀琀 氀攀瘀攀爀愀最攀搀 氀椀渀最甀椀猀琀椀挀 搀椀瘀攀爀猀椀琀礀 愀猀 愀渀 愀猀猀攀琀Ⰰഀഀ encapsulated by its motto, "Unity in Diversity." The focus of EU ਍氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 瀀漀氀椀挀椀攀猀 最爀愀搀甀愀氀氀礀 猀栀椀昀琀攀搀 昀爀漀洀 瀀甀爀攀氀礀 瀀漀氀椀琀椀挀愀氀 漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀猀 琀漀ഀഀ economic ones. EU member states officially recognized 24 European languages and ਍猀琀愀渀搀愀爀搀椀稀攀搀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 瀀爀漀昀椀挀椀攀渀挀礀 甀猀椀渀最 琀栀攀 䌀漀洀洀漀渀 䔀甀爀漀瀀攀愀渀 䘀爀愀洀攀眀漀爀欀 漀昀ഀഀ Reference for Languages (CEFR), which categorizes language skills into levels ਍爀愀渀最椀渀最 昀爀漀洀 䄀㄀ 琀漀 䌀㈀⸀ 䤀渀 ㈀　　㤀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 䔀唀 倀愀爀氀椀愀洀攀渀琀 爀攀愀昀昀椀爀洀攀搀 椀琀猀 挀漀洀洀椀琀洀攀渀琀 琀漀ഀഀ multilingualism by stating that "Europeans should speak their mother ਍琀漀渀最甀攀 瀀氀甀猀 琀眀漀 漀琀栀攀爀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀猀᐀漠渀攀 昀漀爀 戀甀猀椀渀攀猀猀 愀渀搀 漀渀攀 昀漀爀 瀀氀攀愀猀甀爀攀☀焀甀漀琀㬀 ⠀㰀猀瀀愀渀ഀഀ class=SpellE>EurActiv, March 25, 2009, as cited in Moore, 2015, p. 26).

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The research articles reviewed on language ਍瀀漀氀椀挀椀攀猀 椀渀 䔀甀爀漀瀀攀 瀀爀漀瘀椀搀攀 愀 挀漀洀瀀爀攀栀攀渀猀椀瘀攀 愀渀愀氀礀猀椀猀 漀昀 琀栀攀椀爀 椀洀瀀氀攀洀攀渀琀愀琀椀漀渀Ⰰഀഀ which was initially driven by political goals and later shifted toward economic ਍漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀猀⸀ 䠀漀眀攀瘀攀爀Ⰰ 琀栀攀猀攀 猀琀甀搀椀攀猀 氀愀爀最攀氀礀 渀攀最氀攀挀琀 琀漀 攀砀瀀氀漀爀攀 琀栀攀 爀漀氀攀猀 漀昀ഀഀ stakeholders involved in these processes. Although some articles briefly ਍爀攀昀攀爀攀渀挀攀 最漀瘀攀爀渀洀攀渀琀愀氀 戀漀搀椀攀猀 愀渀搀 琀攀愀挀栀攀爀猀Ⰰ 琀栀攀礀 昀愀氀氀 猀栀漀爀琀 漀昀 搀攀琀愀椀氀椀渀最 琀栀攀椀爀ഀഀ specific roles and contributions. Furthermore, the involvement of other crucial ਍愀最攀渀琀猀 椀渀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 瀀漀氀椀挀礀 椀洀瀀氀攀洀攀渀琀愀琀椀漀渀 爀攀洀愀椀渀猀 甀渀攀砀愀洀椀渀攀搀⸀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀琀攀砀琀ⴀ愀氀椀最渀㨀樀甀猀琀椀昀礀㬀氀椀渀攀ⴀ栀攀椀最栀琀㨀㄀㔀　─✀㸀㰀猀瀀愀渀 氀愀渀最㴀䔀一ⴀ唀匀ഀഀ style='mso-ansi-language:EN-US'>Interestingly, the Common European Framework of ਍刀攀昀攀爀攀渀挀攀 昀漀爀 䰀愀渀最甀愀最攀猀 ⠀䌀䔀䘀刀⤀ 栀愀猀 戀攀攀渀 愀搀漀瀀琀攀搀 渀漀琀 漀渀氀礀 椀渀 䔀甀爀漀瀀攀 戀甀琀 愀氀猀漀 椀渀ഀഀ regions such as South America, Asia, and Africa, where it serves as a model for ਍氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 瀀漀氀椀挀礀⸀ 䠀漀眀攀瘀攀爀Ⰰ 搀爀椀瘀攀渀 戀礀 攀挀漀渀漀洀椀挀 椀渀琀攀爀攀猀琀猀Ⰰ 最漀瘀攀爀渀洀攀渀琀猀 椀渀 琀栀攀猀攀ഀഀ regions have implemented language policies in ways that reveal striking ਍猀椀洀椀氀愀爀椀琀椀攀猀 愀挀爀漀猀猀 琀栀攀猀攀 搀椀瘀攀爀猀攀 挀漀渀琀攀砀琀猀⸀ 唀渀昀漀爀琀甀渀愀琀攀氀礀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 甀渀椀焀甀攀ഀഀ conditions, cultural backgrounds, and specific needs of each country are often ਍漀瘀攀爀氀漀漀欀攀搀 椀渀 琀栀攀 昀漀爀洀甀氀愀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 琀栀攀猀攀 瀀漀氀椀挀椀攀猀Ⰰ 氀攀愀搀椀渀最 琀漀 愀 氀愀挀欀 漀昀ഀഀ contextual relevance in their application.

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Meanwhile, teachers are classified to work in ਍瘀愀爀椀漀甀猀 椀渀猀琀椀琀甀琀椀漀渀猀Ⰰ 猀挀栀漀漀氀猀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 甀渀椀瘀攀爀猀椀琀椀攀猀 戀愀猀攀搀 漀渀 琀栀攀 氀攀瘀攀氀 漀昀 瀀爀漀昀椀挀椀攀渀挀礀ഀഀ they have attained according to the CEFR standards. Simultaneously, students ਍愀爀攀 爀攀焀甀椀爀攀搀 琀漀 昀漀氀氀漀眀 愀 挀甀爀爀椀挀甀氀甀洀 愀氀椀最渀攀搀 眀椀琀栀 琀栀攀 䌀䔀䘀刀Ⰰ 眀椀琀栀 琀栀攀 愀椀洀 漀昀ഀഀ reaching specific proficiency levels through extended hours of English ਍椀渀猀琀爀甀挀琀椀漀渀⸀ 䠀漀眀攀瘀攀爀Ⰰ 爀攀猀攀愀爀挀栀攀爀猀 昀爀漀洀 琀栀攀 䜀氀漀戀愀氀 一漀爀琀栀Ⰰ 猀甀挀栀 愀猀 一甀渀愀渀 ⠀㈀　　㌀⤀Ⰰഀഀ have pointed out that "teacher education and the English language skills ਍漀昀 琀攀愀挀栀攀爀猀 椀渀 瀀甀戀氀椀挀ⴀ猀攀挀琀漀爀 椀渀猀琀椀琀甀琀椀漀渀猀 愀爀攀 椀渀愀搀攀焀甀愀琀攀☀焀甀漀琀㬀 ⠀瀀⸀ 㘀　㘀⤀⸀ 吀栀椀猀ഀഀ critique has led governments in countries like China, Japan, Malaysia, Vietnam, ਍吀愀椀眀愀渀Ⰰ 䠀漀渀最 䬀漀渀最Ⰰ 愀渀搀 匀漀甀琀栀 䬀漀爀攀愀 琀漀 愀爀最甀攀 琀栀愀琀 洀愀渀礀 琀攀愀挀栀攀爀猀 氀愀挀欀 琀栀攀ഀഀ necessary proficiency in the English language, as well as the pedagogical ਍攀砀瀀攀爀琀椀猀攀 渀攀攀搀攀搀 琀漀 攀昀昀攀挀琀椀瘀攀氀礀 琀攀愀挀栀 椀琀⸀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀琀攀砀琀ⴀ愀氀椀最渀㨀樀甀猀琀椀昀礀㬀氀椀渀攀ⴀ栀攀椀最栀琀㨀㄀㔀　─✀㸀㰀猀瀀愀渀 氀愀渀最㴀䔀一ⴀ唀匀ഀഀ style='mso-ansi-language:EN-US'>In response to these challenges, some ਍最漀瘀攀爀渀洀攀渀琀猀 椀渀 䄀猀椀愀Ⰰ 䄀昀爀椀挀愀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 匀漀甀琀栀 䄀洀攀爀椀挀愀 栀愀瘀攀 愀搀漀瀀琀攀搀 愀 猀琀爀愀琀攀最礀 欀渀漀眀渀 愀猀ഀഀ "native-speakerism." Unfortunately, this approach often fosters ਍猀漀挀椀愀氀 挀氀愀猀猀椀猀洀 愀渀搀 甀渀搀攀爀洀椀渀攀猀 挀甀氀琀甀爀愀氀 椀搀攀渀琀椀琀礀⸀ 䤀渀 琀栀攀 䄀猀椀愀ⴀ倀愀挀椀昀椀挀 爀攀最椀漀渀Ⰰഀഀ for instance, some policymakers hold the belief that "investment in ਍攀氀攀洀攀渀琀愀爀礀 昀漀爀攀椀最渀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 攀搀甀挀愀琀椀漀渀 洀愀礀 眀攀氀氀 戀攀 眀漀爀琀栀 椀琀Ⰰ 戀甀琀 漀渀氀礀 椀昀 琀栀攀ഀഀ teachers are native or native-like speakers and well-trained in the needs of ਍礀漀甀渀最攀爀 氀攀愀爀渀攀爀猀☀焀甀漀琀㬀 ⠀㰀猀瀀愀渀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀匀瀀攀氀氀䔀㸀䴀愀爀椀渀漀瘀愀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀ⴀ吀漀搀搀 攀琀 愀氀⸀Ⰰ ㈀　　　Ⰰഀഀ as cited in Nunan, 2003, p. 607). This perspective prioritizes native speakers, ਍瀀攀爀瀀攀琀甀愀琀椀渀最 愀 戀椀愀猀 琀栀愀琀 搀椀猀爀攀最愀爀搀猀 琀栀攀 挀愀瀀愀戀椀氀椀琀椀攀猀 漀昀 氀漀挀愀氀 攀搀甀挀愀琀漀爀猀 愀渀搀 挀愀渀ഀഀ have detrimental social implications.

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Tiempo, January 20, 2015, as cited in ਍䜀漀渀稀氀攀稀 ☀愀洀瀀㬀 㰀猀瀀愀渀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀匀瀀攀氀氀䔀㸀䰀氀甀爀搀愀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀Ⰰ ㈀　㄀㘀Ⰰ 瀀⸀ 㤀㠀⤀⸀ 匀椀洀椀氀愀爀氀礀Ⰰ 椀渀ഀഀ Mexico, it was stated that "if it is necessary to bring teachers from ਍漀琀栀攀爀 瀀氀愀挀攀猀 琀漀 猀甀戀猀琀椀琀甀琀攀 琀栀攀洀Ⰰ 攀瘀攀渀 昀爀漀洀 挀漀甀渀琀爀椀攀猀 眀椀琀栀 戀攀琀琀攀爀 攀搀甀挀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀ഀഀ levels, there should be no doubts" (El Universal, April 17, 2013, as cited ਍椀渀 䜀漀渀稀氀攀稀 ☀愀洀瀀㬀 㰀猀瀀愀渀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀匀瀀攀氀氀䔀㸀䰀氀甀爀搀愀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀Ⰰ ㈀　㄀㘀Ⰰ 瀀⸀ 㤀㠀⤀⸀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀琀攀砀琀ⴀ愀氀椀最渀㨀樀甀猀琀椀昀礀㬀氀椀渀攀ⴀ栀攀椀最栀琀㨀㄀㔀　─✀㸀㰀猀瀀愀渀 氀愀渀最㴀䔀一ⴀ唀匀ഀഀ style='mso-ansi-language:EN-US'>This approach, upon closer examination, reveals ਍栀漀眀 渀愀琀椀瘀攀ⴀ猀瀀攀愀欀攀爀椀猀洀 瀀攀爀瀀攀琀甀愀琀攀猀 昀漀爀攀椀最渀 搀攀瀀攀渀搀攀渀挀礀 愀渀搀 猀甀猀琀愀椀渀猀 挀漀氀漀渀椀愀氀ഀഀ mechanisms of control, particularly through the lens of whiteness. It relies on ਍琀栀攀 爀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀攀 琀栀愀琀 氀漀挀愀氀 琀攀愀挀栀攀爀猀 氀愀挀欀 猀甀昀昀椀挀椀攀渀琀 䔀渀最氀椀猀栀 瀀爀漀昀椀挀椀攀渀挀礀Ⰰ 琀栀攀爀攀戀礀ഀഀ justifying the need for foreign educators to achieve better outcomes in the ਍椀洀瀀氀攀洀攀渀琀愀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 瀀漀氀椀挀椀攀猀⸀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀琀攀砀琀ⴀ愀氀椀最渀㨀樀甀猀琀椀昀礀㬀氀椀渀攀ⴀ栀攀椀最栀琀㨀㄀㔀　─✀㸀㰀猀瀀愀渀 氀愀渀最㴀䔀一ⴀ唀匀ഀഀ style='mso-ansi-language:EN-US'>This literature review does not offer an ਍攀砀栀愀甀猀琀椀瘀攀 愀渀愀氀礀猀椀猀 漀昀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 瀀漀氀椀挀椀攀猀 椀渀 䄀昀爀椀挀愀⸀ 䠀漀眀攀瘀攀爀Ⰰ 䜀愀爀挀愀 ⠀㈀　㄀㔀⤀ഀഀ highlights that, during colonial times in Ghana, students who spoke African ਍氀愀渀最甀愀最攀猀 眀攀爀攀 昀漀爀挀攀搀 琀漀 眀攀愀爀 愀 猀栀愀洀椀渀最 猀椀最渀 愀猀 瀀甀渀椀猀栀洀攀渀琀⸀ 吀栀攀 甀渀搀攀爀氀礀椀渀最ഀഀ political goal of such language policies was to reinforce the power of the ਍椀洀瀀攀爀椀愀氀椀猀琀 爀攀最椀洀攀⸀ 伀瘀攀爀 琀椀洀攀Ⰰ 琀栀椀猀 瀀漀氀椀琀椀挀愀氀 漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀 攀瘀漀氀瘀攀搀 椀渀琀漀 漀渀攀 搀爀椀瘀攀渀ഀഀ by economic and social interests, reflecting the shifting priorities of the ਍挀漀氀漀渀椀愀氀 愀甀琀栀漀爀椀琀椀攀猀⸀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀琀攀砀琀ⴀ愀氀椀最渀㨀樀甀猀琀椀昀礀㬀氀椀渀攀ⴀ栀攀椀最栀琀㨀㄀㔀　─✀㸀㰀猀瀀愀渀 氀愀渀最㴀䔀一ⴀ唀匀ഀഀ style='mso-ansi-language:EN-US'>Today, English is taught in Ghana as its ਍漀昀昀椀挀椀愀氀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀Ⰰ 搀攀猀瀀椀琀攀 琀栀攀 攀砀椀猀琀攀渀挀攀 漀昀 愀瀀瀀爀漀砀椀洀愀琀攀氀礀 㜀　 椀渀搀椀最攀渀漀甀猀ഀഀ languages, according to studies by Ramirez and Merino (1990, as cited in Obeng, ਍㈀　㈀　⤀⸀ 䄀猀 愀 爀攀猀甀氀琀Ⰰ 䔀渀最氀椀猀栀 昀甀渀挀琀椀漀渀猀 愀猀 愀 氀椀渀最甀愀 昀爀愀渀挀愀 椀渀 琀栀攀 挀漀甀渀琀爀礀⸀ 吀栀攀ഀഀ language policy enforced is English-only, which has led to several challenges. ਍䴀漀猀琀 琀攀愀挀栀攀爀猀 愀爀攀 瀀爀漀昀椀挀椀攀渀琀 漀渀氀礀 椀渀 䔀渀最氀椀猀栀 愀渀搀 漀渀攀 氀漀挀愀氀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀Ⰰ 洀愀欀椀渀最 琀栀攀ഀഀ English-only policy more difficult to implement in diverse classroom settings ਍⠀伀戀攀渀最Ⰰ ㈀　㈀　⤀⸀ 伀戀攀渀最ᤀ猠 猀琀甀搀礀 椀猀 漀渀攀 漀昀 琀栀攀 昀攀眀 琀栀愀琀 愀搀搀爀攀猀猀攀猀 琀栀攀 椀渀瘀漀氀瘀攀洀攀渀琀ഀഀ of educational stakeholders in the language policy implementation process. He ਍椀搀攀渀琀椀昀椀攀猀 琀攀愀挀栀攀爀猀Ⰰ 猀琀甀搀攀渀琀猀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 瀀愀爀攀渀琀猀 愀猀 欀攀礀 猀琀愀欀攀栀漀氀搀攀爀猀Ⰰ 攀洀瀀栀愀猀椀稀椀渀最 琀栀攀ഀഀ vital role of teachers as implementers of these policies. Obeng (2020) argues ਍琀栀愀琀 椀琀 椀猀 挀爀甀挀椀愀氀 琀漀 椀渀瘀漀氀瘀攀 愀氀氀 猀琀愀欀攀栀漀氀搀攀爀猀 椀渀 琀栀攀 昀漀爀洀甀氀愀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀ഀഀ policies to achieve effective outcomes in the nation's educational and ਍搀攀瘀攀氀漀瀀洀攀渀琀愀氀 最漀愀氀猀⸀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀琀攀砀琀ⴀ愀氀椀最渀㨀樀甀猀琀椀昀礀㬀氀椀渀攀ⴀ栀攀椀最栀琀㨀㄀㔀　─✀㸀㰀猀瀀愀渀 氀愀渀最㴀䔀一ⴀ唀匀ഀഀ style='mso-ansi-language:EN-US'>The English-only language policy, which ਍漀爀椀最椀渀愀琀攀搀 椀渀 琀栀攀 唀渀椀琀攀搀 匀琀愀琀攀猀Ⰰ 栀愀猀 戀攀攀渀 愀瀀瀀氀椀攀搀 戀漀琀栀 搀漀洀攀猀琀椀挀愀氀氀礀 愀渀搀 椀渀ഀഀ parts of Africa. Americans speak English as a result of ਍挀漀氀漀渀椀稀愀琀椀漀渀Ⰰ 猀椀洀椀氀愀爀 琀漀 琀栀攀 栀椀猀琀漀爀椀挀愀氀 挀漀渀琀攀砀琀 椀渀 䜀栀愀渀愀⸀ 吀漀搀愀礀Ⰰ 栀漀眀攀瘀攀爀Ⰰ 琀栀攀ഀഀ U.S. faces challenges related to the languages of its immigrant populations. ਍䘀漀爀 攀砀愀洀瀀氀攀Ⰰ 猀琀愀琀攀猀 氀椀欀攀 䌀愀氀椀昀漀爀渀椀愀Ⰰ 䄀爀椀稀漀渀愀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 䴀愀猀猀愀挀栀甀猀攀琀琀猀 栀愀瘀攀 攀渀愀挀琀攀搀ഀഀ laws influenced by the English for the Children Organization, establishing ਍☀焀甀漀琀㬀䔀渀最氀椀猀栀ⴀ漀渀氀礀☀焀甀漀琀㬀 愀猀 琀栀攀 搀攀昀愀甀氀琀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 瀀漀氀椀挀礀 椀渀 瀀甀戀氀椀挀 猀挀栀漀漀氀猀⸀ഀഀ However, the interpretation and implementation of this policy have varied by ਍猀琀愀琀攀⸀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀琀攀砀琀ⴀ愀氀椀最渀㨀樀甀猀琀椀昀礀㬀氀椀渀攀ⴀ栀攀椀最栀琀㨀㄀㔀　─✀㸀㰀猀瀀愀渀 氀愀渀最㴀䔀一ⴀ唀匀ഀഀ style='mso-ansi-language:EN-US'>In California, the influence of the Civil ਍刀椀最栀琀猀 䴀漀瘀攀洀攀渀琀 氀攀搀 琀漀 琀栀攀 挀漀渀琀椀渀甀愀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 戀椀氀椀渀最甀愀氀 攀搀甀挀愀琀椀漀渀 瀀爀漀最爀愀洀猀Ⰰഀഀ specifically two-way immersion programs. In contrast, Arizona and Massachusetts ਍挀栀漀猀攀 琀漀 愀搀漀瀀琀 愀渀琀椀ⴀ戀椀氀椀渀最甀愀氀 攀搀甀挀愀琀椀漀渀 瀀漀氀椀挀椀攀猀Ⰰ 搀爀椀瘀攀渀 戀礀 琀栀攀 戀攀氀椀攀昀 椀渀 琀栀攀ഀഀ "popular image of the United States as a nation of immigrants, who have ਍猀甀挀挀攀攀搀攀搀 攀挀漀渀漀洀椀挀愀氀氀礀 戀礀 氀攀愀爀渀椀渀最 䔀渀最氀椀猀栀 愀渀搀 氀攀愀瘀椀渀最 琀栀攀椀爀 攀琀栀渀椀挀 爀漀漀琀猀 戀攀栀椀渀搀☀焀甀漀琀㬀ഀഀ (Schmidt, 2000, as cited in De Jong, 2008, p. 352). Consequently, teachers in ਍琀栀攀猀攀 猀琀愀琀攀猀 眀攀爀攀 爀攀焀甀椀爀攀搀 琀漀 愀搀栀攀爀攀 琀漀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 瀀漀氀椀挀椀攀猀 愀猀 椀渀琀攀爀瀀爀攀琀攀搀 戀礀ഀഀ administrators, often regardless of their own beliefs or preferences.

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In light ofFurthermore, teachers are frequently perceived ਍琀栀爀漀甀最栀 愀渀 椀渀猀琀爀甀洀攀渀琀愀氀 氀攀渀猀Ⰰ 洀攀爀攀氀礀 愀猀 椀洀瀀氀攀洀攀渀琀攀爀猀 漀昀 瀀漀氀椀挀椀攀猀⸀ 吀栀椀猀ഀഀ perspective fails to acknowledge that teachers typically engage with language ਍瀀漀氀椀挀椀攀猀 漀渀氀礀 琀漀眀愀爀搀 琀栀攀 攀渀搀 漀昀 琀栀攀 瀀爀漀挀攀猀猀Ⰰ 眀栀攀爀攀 琀栀攀椀爀 愀挀琀椀漀渀猀 愀爀攀 挀漀渀琀椀渀最攀渀琀ഀഀ upon their interpretation of the existing policies. By neglecting the broader ਍渀攀琀眀漀爀欀 漀昀 猀琀愀欀攀栀漀氀搀攀爀猀 椀渀瘀漀氀瘀攀搀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 氀椀琀攀爀愀琀甀爀攀 搀椀洀椀渀椀猀栀攀猀 琀栀攀 挀漀洀瀀氀攀砀Ⰰഀഀ collaborative nature of language policy implementation.

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In this section, I provide a historical ਍漀瘀攀爀瘀椀攀眀 漀昀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 瀀漀氀椀挀椀攀猀 椀渀 䌀漀氀漀洀戀椀愀 愀渀搀 琀栀攀椀爀 椀洀瀀愀挀琀 漀渀 愀最攀渀琀猀 漀昀 挀栀愀渀最攀Ⰰഀഀ particularly teachers. According to Usma (2009), with ਍挀漀氀漀渀椀稀愀琀椀漀渀Ⰰ 䌀愀猀琀攀氀氀愀渀漀 眀愀猀 椀洀瀀漀猀攀搀 漀渀 琀栀攀 瀀漀瀀甀氀愀琀椀漀渀Ⰰ 氀攀愀搀椀渀最 琀漀 琀栀攀ഀഀ marginalization of indigenous languages and Creole. Initially, the primary ਍漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀 漀昀 琀栀攀猀攀 瀀漀氀椀挀椀攀猀 眀愀猀 瀀漀氀椀琀椀挀愀氀Ⰰ 愀猀 琀栀攀 匀瀀愀渀椀猀栀 挀漀氀漀渀椀稀攀爀猀 猀漀甀最栀琀 琀漀ഀഀ communicate their rules and impose their culture and religion. Gómez (2016) ਍渀漀琀攀猀 琀栀愀琀 攀搀甀挀愀琀椀漀渀 愀琀 琀栀愀琀 琀椀洀攀 眀愀猀 攀砀挀氀甀猀椀瘀攀氀礀 昀漀爀 洀愀氀攀猀Ⰰ 眀椀琀栀 䰀愀琀椀渀 戀攀椀渀最ഀഀ used primarily for religious instruction and recitation.

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UsmaGómez (2016) observes that, despite years of ਍䔀渀最氀椀猀栀 椀渀猀琀爀甀挀琀椀漀渀 椀渀 䌀漀氀漀洀戀椀愀Ⰰ 琀栀攀爀攀 眀攀爀攀 渀漀 挀氀攀愀爀 漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀猀 漀爀 攀瘀愀氀甀愀琀椀漀渀ഀഀ criteria until 2005, when Law 1651 was enacted to establish the National ਍䈀椀氀椀渀最甀愀氀椀猀洀 倀爀漀最爀愀洀 ⠀一䈀倀⤀ ㈀　　㐀ⴀ㈀　㄀㤀⸀ 㰀猀瀀愀渀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀匀瀀攀氀氀䔀㸀唀猀洀愀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀 ⠀㈀　　㤀⤀ 愀渀搀ഀഀ Gómez (2016) explain that NBP combines with the formulation of complementary ਍爀攀最甀氀愀琀椀漀渀猀 愀渀搀 搀椀昀昀攀爀攀渀琀 搀攀挀爀攀攀猀 眀栀攀爀攀 椀琀猀 漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀猀 漀昀 瀀爀漀瘀椀搀椀渀最 椀渀搀椀最攀渀漀甀猀 挀漀洀洀甀渀椀琀椀攀猀ഀഀ with bilingual education, including flexible language teaching models for ਍渀漀渀ⴀ昀漀爀洀愀氀 攀搀甀挀愀琀椀漀渀 挀愀氀氀攀搀 ☀焀甀漀琀㬀攀搀甀挀愀琀椀漀渀 琀漀 眀漀爀欀 愀渀搀 栀甀洀愀渀 搀攀瘀攀氀漀瀀洀攀渀琀☀焀甀漀琀㬀ഀഀ (Law 1064) and improving communicative competence in English takes place. NBP ਍愀搀漀瀀琀攀搀 琀栀攀 䌀漀洀洀漀渀 䔀甀爀漀瀀攀愀渀 䘀爀愀洀攀眀漀爀欀 漀昀 刀攀昀攀爀攀渀挀攀 ⠀䌀䔀䘀刀⤀ⴀ 䐀攀挀爀攀攀 ㌀㠀㜀　Ⰰ 琀栀攀ഀഀ Saber 11 national exam, Saber Pro, and ECAES aligned to CEFR and productivity ਍渀攀攀搀猀⸀ 吀栀漀猀攀 攀砀愀洀猀 愀猀猀攀猀猀 猀琀甀搀攀渀琀猀 漀渀氀礀 椀渀 猀漀洀攀 爀攀愀搀椀渀最 猀欀椀氀氀猀Ⰰ 瘀漀挀愀戀甀氀愀爀礀Ⰰ 愀渀搀ഀഀ grammar. In 2006, a booklet titled Basic Standards of Competences in Foreign ਍䰀愀渀最甀愀最攀猀 䔀渀最氀椀猀栀 眀愀猀 搀椀猀琀爀椀戀甀琀攀搀 椀渀 瀀甀戀氀椀挀 愀渀搀 瀀爀椀瘀愀琀攀 猀挀栀漀漀氀猀⸀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀琀攀砀琀ⴀ愀氀椀最渀㨀樀甀猀琀椀昀礀㬀氀椀渀攀ⴀ栀攀椀最栀琀㨀㄀㔀　─✀㸀㰀猀瀀愀渀 氀愀渀最㴀䔀一ⴀ唀匀ഀഀ style='mso-ansi-language:EN-US'>A second plan was introduced in 2010 under a ਍渀攀眀 最漀瘀攀爀渀洀攀渀琀 ⠀䜀洀攀稀Ⰰ ㈀　㄀㘀⤀⸀ 吀栀椀猀 椀渀椀琀椀愀琀椀瘀攀Ⰰ 欀渀漀眀渀 愀猀 琀栀攀 倀爀漀最爀愀洀 昀漀爀ഀഀ Strengthening the Development of Competences in Foreign Languages (2010-2014), ਍攀洀瀀栀愀猀椀稀攀搀 攀渀栀愀渀挀椀渀最 琀攀愀挀栀攀爀 琀爀愀椀渀椀渀最Ⰰ 瀀愀爀琀椀挀甀氀愀爀氀礀 椀渀 洀攀琀栀漀搀漀氀漀最椀攀猀Ⰰ 挀愀猀挀愀搀攀ഀഀ training models, and evaluation processes. The program also developed ਍瀀攀搀愀最漀最椀挀愀氀 洀愀琀攀爀椀愀氀猀 琀愀椀氀漀爀攀搀 琀漀 猀瀀攀挀椀昀椀挀 猀琀甀搀攀渀琀 渀攀攀搀猀Ⰰ 挀爀攀愀琀攀搀 戀礀 䌀漀氀漀洀戀椀愀渀ഀഀ specialists who provided methodological guidelines for educators. Follow-up and ਍攀瘀愀氀甀愀琀椀漀渀 眀攀爀攀 挀漀渀搀甀挀琀攀搀 琀栀爀漀甀最栀 瘀愀爀椀漀甀猀 愀猀猀攀猀猀洀攀渀琀猀 猀瀀攀挀椀昀椀挀愀氀氀礀 搀攀猀椀最渀攀搀 昀漀爀ഀഀ teachers. As a result, "universities and school stakeholders were ਍椀渀甀渀搀愀琀攀搀 眀椀琀栀 猀琀愀渀搀愀爀搀椀稀攀搀 洀漀搀攀氀猀 愀渀搀 琀攀猀琀猀☀焀甀漀琀㬀 ⠀㰀猀瀀愀渀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀匀瀀攀氀氀䔀㸀唀猀洀愀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀Ⰰഀഀ 2009, p. 129).

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Colombia Very Well! 2015-2025, continued ਍攀昀昀漀爀琀猀 琀漀 攀渀栀愀渀挀攀 琀攀愀挀栀攀爀 琀爀愀椀渀椀渀最 戀礀 椀渀挀爀攀愀猀椀渀最 䔀渀最氀椀猀栀 椀渀猀琀爀甀挀琀椀漀渀 琀漀 愀琀ഀഀ least three additional hours in secondary education and half an hour in primary ਍攀搀甀挀愀琀椀漀渀⸀ 吀栀椀猀 瀀氀愀渀 愀氀猀漀 愀椀洀攀搀 琀漀 攀焀甀椀瀀 猀挀栀漀漀氀猀 眀椀琀栀 琀攀挀栀渀漀氀漀最礀 愀渀搀 愀氀椀最渀ഀഀ national exams, such as Saber 5th and 9th, with the Common European Framework ਍漀昀 刀攀昀攀爀攀渀挀攀 ⠀䌀䔀䘀刀⤀⸀ 匀甀戀猀攀焀甀攀渀琀氀礀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 昀漀甀爀琀栀 椀渀椀琀椀愀琀椀瘀攀Ⰰ 㰀攀洀㸀䈀椀氀椀渀最甀愀氀ഀഀ Colombia 2014-2018, reintroduced the concept of "bilingualism" ਍眀椀琀栀 愀 昀漀挀甀猀 漀渀 椀洀瀀爀漀瘀椀渀最 琀攀愀挀栀攀爀猀✀ 瀀爀漀昀椀挀椀攀渀挀礀⸀ 吀栀椀猀 瀀氀愀渀 爀攀焀甀椀爀攀搀 琀攀愀挀栀攀爀猀 琀漀ഀഀ reach at least a B1 level, with only those holding a B2 level or higher being ਍攀氀椀最椀戀氀攀 昀漀爀 瀀甀戀氀椀挀 猀挀栀漀漀氀 瀀漀猀椀琀椀漀渀猀⸀ 䄀搀搀椀琀椀漀渀愀氀氀礀Ⰰ 渀愀琀椀瘀攀 䔀渀最氀椀猀栀 猀瀀攀愀欀攀爀猀ഀഀ were brought in to teach grades 9 through 11. Universities were required to ਍攀洀瀀氀漀礀 渀愀琀椀瘀攀 䔀渀最氀椀猀栀ⴀ猀瀀攀愀欀椀渀最 椀渀猀琀爀甀挀琀漀爀猀Ⰰ 漀昀昀攀爀 椀渀琀攀爀渀猀栀椀瀀猀 愀戀爀漀愀搀Ⰰ 愀渀搀ഀഀ ensure that students graduated with a B2 level to achieve accreditation. ਍䘀甀爀琀栀攀爀洀漀爀攀Ⰰ 㰀攀洀㸀䈀椀氀椀渀最甀愀氀 䌀漀氀漀洀戀椀愀㰀⼀攀洀㸀 瀀甀戀氀椀猀栀攀搀 琀眀漀 欀攀礀 戀漀漀欀氀攀琀猀㨀 㰀攀洀㸀倀攀搀愀最漀最椀挀愀氀ഀഀ Principles and Guidelines: Suggested English Curriculum, 6th to 11th Grades ਍愀渀搀 㰀攀洀㸀䈀愀猀椀挀 䰀攀愀爀渀椀渀最 刀椀最栀琀猀㨀 䔀渀最氀椀猀栀 㘀琀栀 琀漀 ㄀㄀琀栀 䜀爀愀搀攀猀㰀⼀攀洀㸀Ⰰ 戀漀琀栀 挀攀渀琀攀爀攀搀ഀഀ on the communicative approach.

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(2009), Gómez (2016), and Le Gal (2018) concur ਍琀栀愀琀 琀栀攀 挀漀渀挀攀瀀琀 漀昀 ☀焀甀漀琀㬀戀椀氀椀渀最甀愀氀椀猀洀☀焀甀漀琀㬀 栀愀猀 戀攀攀渀 眀椀搀攀氀礀 洀椀猀甀渀搀攀爀猀琀漀漀搀 椀渀ഀഀ Colombia, where it is predominantly equated with English, leading to a narrow ਍椀渀琀攀爀瀀爀攀琀愀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 椀琀猀 琀爀甀攀 洀攀愀渀椀渀最⸀ 吀栀椀猀 氀椀洀椀琀攀搀 瀀攀爀猀瀀攀挀琀椀瘀攀 爀攀猀甀氀琀猀 椀渀 琀栀攀ഀഀ marginalization and silencing of indigenous and Creole languages. Such ਍洀椀猀挀漀渀挀攀瀀琀椀漀渀猀 猀琀攀洀 昀爀漀洀 琀栀攀 愀搀漀瀀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 䔀甀爀漀瀀攀愀渀 搀椀猀挀漀甀爀猀攀猀 漀渀 戀椀氀椀渀最甀愀氀椀猀洀Ⰰഀഀ where language policies are imported, adapted, and at times resisted locally (Teachers in Colombia face significant ਍挀栀愀氀氀攀渀最攀猀Ⰰ 椀渀挀氀甀搀椀渀最 ☀焀甀漀琀㬀樀甀瘀攀渀椀氀攀 挀爀椀洀攀Ⰰ 最愀渀最 愀挀琀椀瘀椀琀礀Ⰰ 洀攀洀戀攀爀猀 漀昀 最甀攀爀爀椀氀氀愀ഀഀ and paramilitary groups, drug trafficking, young parents, displaced children, ਍愀渀搀 猀琀甀搀攀渀琀猀 眀椀琀栀 洀攀渀琀愀氀 栀攀愀氀琀栀 椀猀猀甀攀猀Ⰰ 愀洀漀渀最 漀琀栀攀爀猀 氀椀瘀椀渀最 椀渀 猀椀洀椀氀愀爀 挀漀渀搀椀琀椀漀渀猀☀焀甀漀琀㬀ഀഀ (Guerrero & Quintero, 2016, p. 55, translated by the author). Although each subsequent plan has been more ਍爀攀愀氀椀猀琀椀挀 椀渀 椀琀猀 愀瀀瀀爀漀愀挀栀Ⰰ ☀焀甀漀琀㬀琀栀攀 挀漀渀猀琀愀渀琀 挀栀愀渀最攀猀 栀愀瘀攀 甀渀搀攀爀洀椀渀攀搀 琀栀攀ഀഀ continuity, consistency, and coherence of strategies, leading to a slower work ਍瀀愀挀攀 愀渀搀 昀漀猀琀攀爀椀渀最 愀 猀攀渀猀攀 漀昀 氀漀眀 愀挀栀椀攀瘀攀洀攀渀琀 愀渀搀 昀爀甀猀琀爀愀琀椀漀渀☀焀甀漀琀㬀 ⠀䜀洀攀稀Ⰰഀഀ 2016, p. 148). Despite these challenges, teachers often find ways to adapt and ਍爀攀猀瀀漀渀搀 瀀漀猀椀琀椀瘀攀氀礀 琀漀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 瀀漀氀椀挀椀攀猀⸀ 吀栀攀礀 愀挀琀 愀猀 愀挀琀椀瘀攀 愀渀搀 挀爀攀愀琀椀瘀攀ഀഀ agents, capable of negotiating external pressures and implementing policies in ਍椀渀渀漀瘀愀琀椀瘀攀 眀愀礀猀 ⠀䌀爀甀稀Ⰰ ㈀　㄀㠀⤀⸀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀琀攀砀琀ⴀ愀氀椀最渀㨀樀甀猀琀椀昀礀㬀氀椀渀攀ⴀ栀攀椀最栀琀㨀㄀㔀　─✀㸀㰀猀瀀愀渀 氀愀渀最㴀䔀一ⴀ唀匀ഀഀ style='mso-ansi-language:EN-US'>In the Colombian rural sector, quality ਍攀搀甀挀愀琀椀漀渀 愀渀搀 栀攀愀氀琀栀挀愀爀攀 猀礀猀琀攀洀猀 栀愀瘀攀 戀攀攀渀 渀攀最氀攀挀琀攀搀Ⰰ 爀攀猀甀氀琀椀渀最 椀渀 攀挀漀渀漀洀椀挀ഀഀ marginalization, deprivation, lack of support, insufficient resources, and a ਍氀愀挀欀 漀昀 爀攀挀漀最渀椀琀椀漀渀⸀ 吀栀椀猀 猀甀最最攀猀琀猀 琀栀愀琀 瀀漀氀椀挀礀洀愀欀攀爀猀 愀爀攀 氀愀爀最攀氀礀 搀椀猀挀漀渀渀攀挀琀攀搀ഀഀ from the realities of rural contexts. According to Cruz (2018), "Colombian ਍攀搀甀挀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 瀀漀氀椀挀椀攀猀 搀漀 渀漀琀 猀攀攀欀 椀渀 愀渀礀 眀愀礀 琀漀 戀攀渀攀昀椀琀 琀攀愀挀栀攀爀猀 愀渀搀 猀琀甀搀攀渀琀猀ഀഀ but rather to advance economic agendas, improve the country's competitiveness, ਍愀渀搀 攀渀栀愀渀挀攀 椀琀猀 瀀漀猀椀琀椀漀渀 椀渀 琀栀攀 最氀漀戀愀氀 洀愀爀欀攀琀☀焀甀漀琀㬀 ⠀瀀⸀ ㄀㐀Ⰰ 琀爀愀渀猀氀愀琀攀搀 戀礀 琀栀攀ഀഀ author).

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Shohamy, 2009, p. 55).

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Bermúdez ਍⠀㈀　㄀㐀⤀ 栀椀最栀氀椀最栀琀猀㨀 㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀洀愀爀最椀渀ⴀ氀攀昀琀㨀㌀㔀⸀㐀瀀琀㬀琀攀砀琀ⴀ愀氀椀最渀㨀樀甀猀琀椀昀礀㬀氀椀渀攀ⴀ栀攀椀最栀琀㨀㄀㔀　─✀㸀㰀猀瀀愀渀ഀഀ lang=EN-US style='mso-ansi-language:EN-US'>"It is vitally important to ਍爀攀挀漀最渀椀稀攀 琀栀愀琀 瀀愀爀琀 漀昀 琀栀攀 猀甀挀挀攀猀猀 漀昀 琀栀攀 椀洀瀀氀攀洀攀渀琀愀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 琀栀攀 一愀琀椀漀渀愀氀ഀഀ Bilingualism Program depends not only on the decisions and actions of the ਍䐀椀猀琀爀椀挀琀 䔀搀甀挀愀琀椀漀渀 匀攀挀爀攀琀愀爀礀 愀渀搀 琀栀攀 瀀爀椀渀挀椀瀀愀氀猀 戀甀琀 愀氀猀漀 漀渀 琀栀攀 攀昀昀漀爀琀Ⰰഀഀ interest, support, and work of all members of the educational community to ਍甀渀搀攀爀猀琀愀渀搀Ⰰ 愀猀猀甀洀攀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 挀漀洀洀椀琀 琀漀 琀栀攀 爀攀愀猀漀渀猀 愀渀搀 瀀甀爀瀀漀猀攀猀 琀栀愀琀 樀甀猀琀椀昀礀 琀栀攀ഀഀ implementation of pilot projects for bilingualism or the intensification of ਍䔀渀最氀椀猀栀☀焀甀漀琀㬀 ⠀瀀⸀ ㄀㔀㠀Ⰰ 琀爀愀渀猀氀愀琀攀搀 戀礀 琀栀攀 愀甀琀栀漀爀⤀⸀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀䴀猀漀一漀爀洀愀氀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀琀攀砀琀ⴀ愀氀椀最渀㨀樀甀猀琀椀昀礀㬀氀椀渀攀ⴀ栀攀椀最栀琀㨀㄀㔀　─✀㸀㰀猀瀀愀渀ഀഀ lang=EN-US style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-ansi-language:EN-US'>Unfortunately, ਍琀栀椀猀 爀攀挀漀洀洀攀渀搀愀琀椀漀渀 椀猀 挀栀愀氀氀攀渀最椀渀最 琀漀 椀洀瀀氀攀洀攀渀琀Ⰰ 愀猀 琀栀攀猀攀 愀最攀渀琀猀 漀昀琀攀渀 氀愀挀欀ഀഀ confidence in the projects, viewing them as temporary initiatives. At times, ਍琀栀攀礀 洀愀礀 愀氀猀漀 氀愀挀欀 琀栀攀 渀攀挀攀猀猀愀爀礀 欀渀漀眀氀攀搀最攀 琀漀 攀昀昀攀挀琀椀瘀攀氀礀 椀洀瀀氀攀洀攀渀琀 琀栀攀ഀഀ policies or may prioritize their own interests (Bermúdez ਍攀琀 愀氀⸀Ⰰ ㈀　㄀㐀⤀⸀ 䄀搀搀椀琀椀漀渀愀氀氀礀Ⰰ 琀栀攀爀攀 椀猀 愀 渀漀琀愀戀氀攀 氀愀挀欀 漀昀 椀渀昀漀爀洀愀琀椀漀渀 漀渀ഀഀ students, who are the ultimate focus of these policies. In fact, students are ਍挀爀椀琀椀挀愀氀 愀最攀渀琀猀 眀栀漀 爀攀猀瀀漀渀搀 琀漀 琀栀攀 搀攀挀椀猀椀漀渀猀Ⰰ 椀渀琀攀爀瀀爀攀琀愀琀椀漀渀猀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 瀀爀漀挀攀猀猀攀猀ഀഀ involved in language policy implementation. The continuity of these policies ਍猀栀愀瀀攀猀 猀琀甀搀攀渀琀猀✀ 愀琀琀椀琀甀搀攀猀 琀漀眀愀爀搀 琀栀攀椀爀 渀愀琀椀瘀攀 愀渀搀 昀漀爀攀椀最渀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀猀Ⰰഀഀ influencing their perspectives, thought processes, and ideologies. As Montoya ਍⠀㈀　㄀㌀⤀ 栀椀最栀氀椀最栀琀猀Ⰰ ☀焀甀漀琀㬀瀀漀氀椀挀椀攀猀 愀渀搀 椀渀猀琀椀琀甀琀椀漀渀愀氀 瀀氀愀渀渀椀渀最 甀氀琀椀洀愀琀攀氀礀ഀഀ influence the attitudes that students express towards languages" ( 

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After examining language policies in various ਍挀漀甀渀琀爀椀攀猀Ⰰ 椀渀挀氀甀搀椀渀最 䌀漀氀漀洀戀椀愀Ⰰ 猀攀瘀攀爀愀氀 挀爀椀琀椀挀愀氀 焀甀攀猀琀椀漀渀猀 愀爀椀猀攀㨀 圀栀愀琀 椀猀 琀栀攀ഀഀ role of the agents responsible for implementing these policies? To what extent ਍搀漀 琀栀攀礀 瀀愀爀琀椀挀椀瀀愀琀攀 椀渀 琀栀攀 瀀爀漀挀攀猀猀㼀 圀栀愀琀 椀洀瀀愀挀琀 搀漀攀猀 琀栀攀椀爀 椀渀瘀漀氀瘀攀洀攀渀琀 栀愀瘀攀 漀渀ഀഀ achieving policy objectives? How do communication and collaboration occur among ਍琀栀攀 搀椀昀昀攀爀攀渀琀 攀搀甀挀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 猀琀愀欀攀栀漀氀搀攀爀猀 琀漀 攀渀猀甀爀攀 琀栀攀 猀甀挀挀攀猀猀 漀昀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀ഀഀ policies? The literature predominantly focuses on the evolution of language ਍瀀漀氀椀挀椀攀猀 椀渀 搀椀昀昀攀爀攀渀琀 挀漀渀琀攀砀琀猀Ⰰ 漀昀琀攀渀 愀氀椀最渀攀搀 眀椀琀栀 最漀瘀攀爀渀洀攀渀琀 漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀猀⸀ഀഀ However, most studies tend to overlook the role of educational stakeholders ਍戀攀礀漀渀搀 琀攀愀挀栀攀爀猀Ⰰ 愀猀 椀昀 琀栀攀礀 眀攀爀攀 琀栀攀 猀漀氀攀 愀最攀渀琀猀 愀挀挀漀甀渀琀愀戀氀攀 昀漀爀 瀀漀氀椀挀礀ഀഀ implementation. Given these challenges, it is crucial to investigate the ਍搀礀渀愀洀椀挀猀 愀洀漀渀最 洀甀氀琀椀瀀氀攀 猀琀愀欀攀栀漀氀搀攀爀猀 愀渀搀 琀漀 挀氀愀爀椀昀礀 琀栀攀 猀瀀攀挀椀昀椀挀 爀漀氀攀猀 愀渀搀ഀഀ contributions of each agent in the implementation process of language policies.

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References

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Babic, M. (2010). Language and political destruction: The case of ਍夀甀最漀猀氀愀瘀椀愀⸀ 䤀渀 䰀⸀ 吀⸀ 䈀愀爀戀愀爀愀Ⰰ 䠀⸀ 㰀猀瀀愀渀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀匀瀀攀氀氀䔀㸀倀甀䈀愁挀稀攀眀猀欀愀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀Ⰰ ☀愀洀瀀㬀ഀഀ M. Babic (Eds.), Language and political disintegration: The case of Yugoslavia.

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, B. ਍⠀㈀　㈀　⤀⸀ 一攀漀氀椀戀攀爀愀氀 㰀猀瀀愀渀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀匀瀀攀氀氀䔀㸀最氀漀戀愀氀椀猀愀琀椀漀渀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀 愀渀搀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 㰀猀瀀愀渀ഀഀ class=SpellE>minoritisation: Lessons from Ireland 2008-18. Languagehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.langcom.2020.09.004, D. (1999).

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De Jong, E. (2008). Contextualising Policy ਍䄀瀀瀀爀漀瀀爀椀愀琀椀漀渀㨀 吀攀愀挀栀攀爀猀✀ 倀攀爀猀瀀攀挀琀椀瘀攀猀Ⰰ 䰀漀挀愀氀 刀攀猀瀀漀渀猀攀猀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 䔀渀最氀椀猀栀ⴀ漀渀氀礀 䈀愀氀氀漀琀ഀഀ Initiatives. Urban Rev (2008) 40:350–370. DOI: 10.1007/s11256-008-0085-y

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DJité, P. G. (1994). From Language Policy to ਍䰀愀渀最甀愀最攀 倀氀愀渀渀椀渀最㨀 䄀渀 伀瘀攀爀瘀椀攀眀 漀昀 䰀愀渀最甀愀最攀猀 伀琀栀攀爀 吀栀愀渀 䔀渀最氀椀猀栀 椀渀 䄀甀猀琀爀愀氀椀愀渀ഀഀ Education. National Languages and Literacy Institute of Australia Ltd., ਍䰀攀瘀攀氀 ㈀Ⰰ 㘀 䌀愀洀瀀椀漀渀 匀琀爀攀攀琀Ⰰ 䐀攀愀欀椀渀Ⰰ 䄀甀猀琀爀愀氀椀愀渀 䌀愀瀀椀琀愀氀 吀攀爀爀椀琀漀爀礀 ㈀㘀　　Ⰰഀഀ Australia.Fernández, ਍䴀⸀ ⠀㈀　㄀㄀⤀⸀ 䴀琀漀搀漀猀 瀀愀爀愀 氀愀 攀渀猀攀愀渀稀愀 搀攀氀 椀渀最氀猀 搀甀爀愀渀琀攀 攀氀 猀椀最氀漀 堀䤀堀 礀 瀀爀椀洀攀爀愀ഀഀ mitad del siglo XX. Revista electrónica de estudios filológicos, 21.

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Flaborea                        

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Gómez, M. (2016). Review and analysis of the Colombian foreign language ਍戀椀氀椀渀最甀愀氀椀猀洀 瀀漀氀椀挀椀攀猀 愀渀搀 瀀氀愀渀猀⸀ 䠀伀圀Ⰰ ㈀㐀⠀㄀⤀Ⰰ ㄀㌀㤀ⴀ㄀㔀㘀⸀ഀഀ http://dx.doi.org/10.19183/how.24.1.343.

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González, A. & Llurda, E. (2016). ਍䈀椀氀椀渀最甀愀氀椀猀洀 愀渀搀 最氀漀戀愀氀椀稀愀琀椀漀渀 椀渀 䰀愀琀椀渀 䄀洀攀爀椀挀愀㨀 䘀攀爀琀椀氀攀 最爀漀甀渀搀 昀漀爀ഀഀ native-speakerism. In F. Copland, S. Garton and S. Mann (eds) LETs and NESTs: ਍嘀漀椀挀攀猀Ⰰ 瘀椀攀眀猀 愀渀搀 瘀椀最渀攀琀琀攀猀Ⰰ 瀀瀀⸀ ㄀　㌀ⴀ㄀㈀㄀⸀ 㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀猀瀀愀渀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀昀漀渀琀ⴀ昀愀洀椀氀礀㨀∀吀椀洀攀猀 一攀眀 刀漀洀愀渀∀Ⰰ猀攀爀椀昀㬀ഀഀ mso-ansi-language:ES-CO'>British Council.

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Distrital Francisco José de Caldas.

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Guerrero, ਍䌀⸀ ⠀㈀　㄀　⤀⸀ 吀栀攀 瀀漀爀琀爀愀礀愀氀 漀昀 䔀䘀䰀 琀攀愀挀栀攀爀猀 椀渀 漀昀昀椀挀椀愀氀 搀椀猀挀漀甀爀猀攀㨀 琀栀攀ഀഀ perpetuation of disdain. PROFILE Vol. 12, No. 2, October, pp. 33-49

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Hornberger, N. and Cassels, D. (2007). Slicing the Onion ਍䔀琀栀渀漀最爀愀瀀栀椀挀愀氀氀礀㨀 䰀愀礀攀爀猀 愀渀搀 匀瀀愀挀攀猀 椀渀 䴀甀氀琀椀氀椀渀最甀愀氀 䰀愀渀最甀愀最攀 䔀搀甀挀愀琀椀漀渀 倀漀氀椀挀礀ഀഀ and Practice. TESOL. Quarterly, Vol. 41, No. 3, 509–532.

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Kaplan, R. and Baldauf, R. (1997). Language ਍瀀氀愀渀渀椀渀最 昀爀漀洀 瀀爀愀挀琀椀挀攀 琀漀 琀栀攀漀爀礀⸀ 䴀甀氀琀椀氀椀渀最甀愀氀 䴀愀琀琀攀爀猀 䰀琀搀⸀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀䴀猀漀一漀爀洀愀氀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀琀攀砀琀ⴀ愀氀椀最渀㨀樀甀猀琀椀昀礀㬀琀攀砀琀ⴀ椀渀搀攀渀琀㨀㌀㔀⸀㐀㔀瀀琀㬀氀椀渀攀ⴀ栀攀椀最栀琀㨀ഀഀ 150%'>, M., Özenici, S. & The barrier to Turkey's foreign ਍氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 琀攀愀挀栀椀渀最 椀猀 昀漀爀攀椀最渀 氀愀渀最甀愀最攀 瀀漀氀椀挀礀㨀 䴀愀挀爀漀ⴀ愀渀搀 洀椀挀爀漀ⴀ氀攀瘀攀氀 瀀氀愀渀渀椀渀最⸀ഀഀ Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 70, 1144-1151

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Le Gal, D. (2018). English Language Teaching in Colombia: A Necessary ਍倀愀爀愀搀椀最洀 匀栀椀昀琀⸀ 㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀猀瀀愀渀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀昀漀渀琀ⴀ昀愀洀椀氀礀㨀∀吀椀洀攀猀 一攀眀 刀漀洀愀渀∀Ⰰ猀攀爀椀昀㬀ഀഀ mso-ansi-language:ES-CO'>Matices en Lenguas Extranjeras, (12), 154–187. ਍栀琀琀瀀猀㨀⼀⼀搀漀椀⸀漀爀最⼀㄀　⸀㄀㔀㐀㐀㘀⼀洀愀氀攀⸀渀㄀㈀⸀㜀㌀㈀㘀㜀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀䴀猀漀一漀爀洀愀氀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀琀攀砀琀ⴀ愀氀椀最渀㨀樀甀猀琀椀昀礀㬀琀攀砀琀ⴀ椀渀搀攀渀琀㨀㌀㔀⸀㐀㔀瀀琀㬀氀椀渀攀ⴀ栀攀椀最栀琀㨀ഀഀ 150%'>, A. (2004). , P., Garzón, E. & Noriega-Borja, R. (2019). Language Teaching; Vol. 12, No. ਍㌀⸀ 栀琀琀瀀猀㨀⼀⼀搀漀椀⸀漀爀最⼀㄀　⸀㔀㔀㌀㤀⼀攀氀琀⸀瘀㄀㈀渀㌀瀀㘀㔀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀䴀猀漀一漀爀洀愀氀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀琀攀砀琀ⴀ愀氀椀最渀㨀樀甀猀琀椀昀礀㬀琀攀砀琀ⴀ椀渀搀攀渀琀㨀㌀㔀⸀㐀㔀瀀琀㬀氀椀渀攀ⴀ栀攀椀最栀琀㨀ഀഀ 150%'>Montoya, ਍䄀⸀ ⠀㈀　㄀㌀⤀⸀ 䰀愀 椀渀挀椀搀攀渀挀椀愀 搀攀 氀愀猀 瀀漀氀琀椀挀愀猀 礀 氀愀 瀀氀愀渀攀愀挀椀渀 氀椀渀最ﰀ猀琀椀挀愀猀 攀渀 氀愀猀ഀഀ actitudes lingüísticas de los estudiantes colombianos. Función, 26, nº1 enero-junio, ਍㈀㌀㜀ⴀ㈀㘀　⸀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀䴀猀漀一漀爀洀愀氀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀琀攀砀琀ⴀ愀氀椀最渀㨀樀甀猀琀椀昀礀㬀琀攀砀琀ⴀ椀渀搀攀渀琀㨀㌀㔀⸀㐀㔀瀀琀㬀氀椀渀攀ⴀ栀攀椀最栀琀㨀ഀഀ 150%'>LanguageNunanThe Impact of English as a ਍䜀氀漀戀愀氀 䰀愀渀最甀愀最攀 漀渀 䔀搀甀挀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 倀漀氀椀挀椀攀猀 愀渀搀 倀爀愀挀琀椀挀攀猀 椀渀 琀栀攀 䄀猀椀愀ⴀ倀愀挀椀昀椀挀ഀഀ Region. TESOL QUARTERLY Vol. 37, No. 4, 589-612

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Obeng, P. (2020). Some stakeholders’ position of the language policy of ਍䜀栀愀渀愀⸀ 䤀渀琀攀爀渀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 䨀漀甀爀渀愀氀 漀昀 匀漀挀椀愀氀 匀挀椀攀渀挀攀猀 愀渀搀 䠀甀洀愀渀 刀攀猀攀愀爀挀栀⸀ 嘀漀氀⸀ ㌀Ⰰ 瀀⸀ഀഀ 449-458. DOI: 10.47191/ijsshr/v3-i12-12

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PoulyHistoire, 133(1), ਍㔀ⴀ㐀㄀⸀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀䴀猀漀一漀爀洀愀氀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀琀攀砀琀ⴀ愀氀椀最渀㨀樀甀猀琀椀昀礀㬀琀攀砀琀ⴀ椀渀搀攀渀琀㨀㌀㔀⸀㐀㔀瀀琀㬀氀椀渀攀ⴀ栀攀椀最栀琀㨀ഀഀ 150%'>Reyes, ਍䴀⸀Ⰰ 䴀甀爀爀椀攀琀愀Ⰰ 䜀⸀ ☀愀洀瀀㬀 䠀攀爀渀渀搀攀稀Ⰰ 䔀⸀ ⠀㈀　㄀㄀⤀⸀ 倀漀氀琀椀挀愀猀 氀椀渀最ﰀ猀琀椀挀愀猀 渀愀挀椀漀渀愀氀攀猀ഀഀ e internacionales sobre la enseñanza del inglés en escuelas primarias. Revista ਍倀甀攀戀氀漀猀 礀 昀爀漀渀琀攀爀愀猀 搀椀最椀琀愀氀Ⰰ 嘀漀氀甀洀攀渀 㘀 渀切洀攀爀漀 ㄀㈀Ⰰ ㄀㘀㜀ⴀ㄀㤀㜀⸀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀䴀猀漀一漀爀洀愀氀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀琀攀砀琀ⴀ愀氀椀最渀㨀樀甀猀琀椀昀礀㬀琀攀砀琀ⴀ椀渀搀攀渀琀㨀㌀㔀⸀㐀㔀瀀琀㬀氀椀渀攀ⴀ栀攀椀最栀琀㨀ഀഀ 150%'>, T. and Hornberger, N. ਍⠀㄀㤀㤀㘀⤀⸀ 㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀猀瀀愀渀 氀愀渀最㴀䔀一ⴀ唀匀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀昀漀渀琀ⴀ昀愀洀椀氀礀㨀∀吀椀洀攀猀 一攀眀 刀漀洀愀渀∀Ⰰ猀攀爀椀昀㬀ഀഀ mso-ansi-language:EN-US'>Unpeeling the Onion: Language Planning and Policy and ਍琀栀攀 䔀䰀吀 倀爀漀昀攀猀猀椀漀渀愀氀⸀ 吀䔀匀伀䰀 儀甀愀爀琀攀爀氀礀Ⰰ 䄀甀琀甀洀渀Ⰰ ㄀㤀㤀㘀Ⰰ 嘀漀氀⸀ ㌀　Ⰰ 一漀⸀ ㌀Ⰰ 䰀愀渀最甀愀最攀ഀഀ Planning and Policy 401-427. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3587691

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ShohamyÍkala[1]Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas, ਍䈀漀最漀琀Ⰰ 䌀漀氀漀洀戀椀愀⸀ 攀洀愀椀氀㨀 㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀猀瀀愀渀 氀愀渀最㴀䔀匀ⴀ吀刀䄀䐀㸀㰀愀ഀഀ href="mailto:amgallol@udistrital.edu.co">amgallol@udistrital.edu.co

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* Review ਍䄀爀琀椀挀氀攀⸀ 䤀洀瀀氀攀洀攀渀琀愀琀椀漀渀 瀀爀漀挀攀猀猀攀猀㨀 挀爀攀愀琀椀漀渀Ⰰ 椀渀琀攀爀瀀爀攀琀愀琀椀漀渀Ⰰ 椀洀瀀氀攀洀攀渀琀愀琀椀漀渀Ⰰഀഀ and appropriation processes.

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Fecha de ਍爀攀挀椀戀漀㨀 ㈀㤀 搀攀 樀甀渀椀漀 搀攀 ㈀　㈀㐀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀䴀猀漀䘀漀漀琀渀漀琀攀吀攀砀琀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀琀攀砀琀ⴀ愀氀椀最渀㨀樀甀猀琀椀昀礀✀㸀㰀猀瀀愀渀 氀愀渀最㴀䔀一ⴀ唀匀ഀഀ style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-ansi-language:EN-US'>Fecha de ਍愀挀攀瀀琀愀挀椀渀㨀 㜀 搀攀 愀最漀猀琀漀 搀攀 ㈀　㈀㐀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀瀀 挀氀愀猀猀㴀䴀猀漀䘀漀漀琀渀漀琀攀吀攀砀琀 猀琀礀氀攀㴀✀琀攀砀琀ⴀ愀氀椀最渀㨀樀甀猀琀椀昀礀✀㸀㰀猀瀀愀渀 氀愀渀最㴀䔀一ⴀ唀匀ഀഀ style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-ansi-language:EN-US'>Fecha de ਍瀀甀戀氀椀挀愀挀椀渀㨀 ㄀㠀 搀攀 昀攀戀爀攀爀漀 搀攀 ㈀　㈀㔀㰀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀漀㨀瀀㸀㰀⼀猀瀀愀渀㸀㰀⼀瀀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀⼀搀椀瘀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀⼀搀椀瘀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀⼀戀漀搀礀㸀ഀഀ ਍㰀⼀栀琀洀氀㸀ഀഀ